Manual of mining tools, illustrated by an atlas

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MANUAL

OP

MINING TOOLS?

GOMPRI8INO

OBSEBVATIONS ON THE MATERIALS FEOM, AND PROCESSES BY

WHICH THEY ARE MANUFACTURED; THEIR SPECIAL

USES, APPLICATIONS, QUALITIES, AND EFFICIENCY.

/ J

IUtii5tr«ttb bg an S.tXa« /Sj • p^ • 3<3

CONTAINING 286 WOOD ENGRAVINGS OF MINING TOOLS, DRAWN

TO SCALE.

BY

WILLIAM MOEGANS,

LBCTDBXB OH WKINO AT THB BBI8T0L SCHOOL OF MZNXg.

uineii

LONDON :
LOCKWOOD & CO., 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT,

LUDGATE HILL.
1871.

//■/./

a.

(f:^ The Atlas of Engravings to accompany anJyillus'
trate the Manual of Mining Tools, price 4^. Od.

PEEFACE.

One of the striking features of the Art of Mining,
in its wide application, is the variety which
characterizes the tools used for prosecuting it.
This variety may be to some extent the result of
prejudices which establish local custom ; but in
the main it is the fruit of skilful design, or selec-
tion, for advantageously accomplishing the sundry
details of mining operations.

The (Object in general is one of interest and
importance to those who aim at promoting the
prosperity of mining, since, for the successful
prosecution of that* industry, so much depends
upon the adaptability and quality of the tools
used. It is consequently requisite that the prin-
ciples which regulate their efficiency should be
thoroughly understood, and as several mining
tools are required for work of an exceptional
nature, it is desirable to tave epecAaX. ^c-o^^vdI^

IV PEEFACOa.

ance with some points, as touching both prin-
ciples and practice, in relation to those tools in
particular.

It has been endeavoured to make the following
pages of some service to mine managers, viewers,
or captains, and overmen, whose knowledge of
the quality, durability, manufacture, and selection
of tools is often appealed to, and who, conse-
quently, require to be familiar with the practical
bearings of the subject.

The affording of information to mining stu-
dents has also been aimed at* For their advan-
tage the principles of operation of some of the
tools have been noticed, with additional points,
which otherwise would not have been introduced.
It is hoped, however, that those of their number
who intend to successfully direct mining opera-
tions, will be prompted by the perusal of these
pages to seek possession of an acquaintance with
the actual me of, at least, ihe ^ordinary mining
tools. To such individuals the advantage of ex-
perience thereby gained cannot be overrated, and
they should constantly remember that when the
time arrives for them to take charge of the
execution of work, they ought to be able to
bring to bear the requisite practical knowledge,

PREFACE. V

and not to be entering upon the acquirement
of it.*

Another intention has been that of affording
English superintendents of foreign mines such
particulars, derived from practice^ as may be
useful to them when engaged in the discharge of
functions demanding their close acquaintance
with details which, in this country, where manu-
facturing industry and skilled labour are always
close at hand, may be regarded as insignificant
and unnecessary.

With the hope that these pages will be read
by working miners, and artisans concerned in the
furnishing of mining tools, it has been attempted
to treat the subject in a way calculated to interest
and inform them upon numerous points. The
writer is proud to acknowledge that much of the
information which has served him well in daily
practice has been communicated to him by men
of these vocations, amongst whom prevails a high
degree of natural intelligence, which is often con-
cealed by modest reserve.

* Freqnenily, disappointments in mining enterprises are
'witnessed at home and abroad, through those who have con-
trol of the works labouring imder the drawback of a training
— if any at all — ^in which actual practice in mining haa \)«Ri^
quite neglectod.

VI PREFACE.

In cases of the most common tools, data relating
to the weights, costs, and prices have, in several
instances, been given, as nearly as it has been
found possible to strike the average ruling in this
country. Although these figures may slightly
fluctuate in any particular neighbourhood, and
may vary somewhat in different districts, such
details as are supplied will oi^ten be acceptable
as a guide in agreeing for, purchasing, and
valuing tools.

The writer is persuaded that a more general
diffusion of knowledge regarding the special
forms of mining tools lised for particular work,
in different districts and countries, must be
advantageous. Consequently, various tools more
or less peculiar to different localities, and also
feome foreign tools, have been illustrated. In-
stances are occadidiiaUy to be seen of miners
trorking under lilifavourable circumstances
through being uninformed reglarding tools used
in a remote district.

The illustrations— drtiwii to scale — ^may be
foimd convenient to some for reference, when
requiring an insight into the character of details
belonging to our subject, which, amongst mining
and manufacturing circles, and in engineering

PREFACE. Vii

publications^ are often alluded to in technical
language.

The foregoing remarks summarize the purport
of this little book. It has been written in the midst
of busy occupation in mining and mechanical pur-
suits — a circumstance which, almost as a natural
consequence, has added to its imperfections.

Simple as the subject appears, it was adopted
because the need of some work devoted to it has
been long and often expressed. Should this
publication in a small measure tend to promote
the miner's important calling, its production will
be significantly honoured.

Any suggestions or additional information
will be highly esteemed by the writer.

Bristol School of Mines,
June^ 1871.

INTEODUCTION.

In noticing some points pertaining to iron and
steel — which have become indispensable in the
manufacture of most of the tools and implements
now employed in the industrial arts — it will
neither be necessary to enumerate the many
different kinds of iron ores met with, nor to
consider the various systems pursued for winning
or working them. Many of our readers will bo
more or less acquainted with the processes by
which iron is reduced from its ores and manu-
factured into a saleable product. Reference will
be made to some of these processes, but only so
far as partly to account for the differences between
good and bad iron and steel; and, further, to
explain briefly some chemical and other facts to
such readers as may not have acquired much
technical training.

The purest state in which the metal iron can
be generally obtained is that known as icrought-

B

2 MINING TOOIiS.

iron. Absolutely pure iron is a chemical curiosity.
The best bar-iron has traces of other elements,
some chemically combined, and others mechani-
cally alloyed with it ; but they appear to have
no very positive influence upon the quality of
the iron until their quantities become more
appreciable.

Chemical analyses have proved that, almost
invariably, red-short iron contains in some form
sulphur, and that cold-short iron contains phos-
phorus ; hence, when iron is tender and weak at a
red heat, or when cold, the cause is attributed to
sulphur in the former case, and to phosphorus
in the latter. Iron derived from the ores of
some districts is noted for red-shortness; that
from the ores of other districts for cold-shortness.
Some ores give iron which is both red-short and
cold-short. Naturally, those ores which are freest
from sulphur, phosphorus, and other deleterious
elements, yield pig-iron most suitable for the pro-
duction of best bar-iron. The smelter reduces
and separates metallic iron from the ores by
slagging or scorifying the accompanying earths,
metals, &c. ; and during this operation it is his
duty to prevent, as far as possible, the com-
bination of any injurious element with the iron
obtained. This is partially, or wholly, accom-
plished by introducing to the smelting furnace,

INTRODUCTION. 6

Simultaneously with the ores and fuel, such sub
stances — either lime, clay shale, sandstone, or
any mixture of some of these, according to the
composition of the ores — as shall flux the earths
and accompanying injurious substances in the
ores, and form liquid slags or cinders, which,
through being lighter, easily separate from and
float upon the surface of the metallic iron. In
other words, the smelter brings into intimate
contact with the ores such substances as, at the
high temperature produced in the furnace, have
greater chemical affinity for, and offer greater
attraction to, the earths and deleterious elements
than is possessed by the molten metallic iron.

Injurious elements, especially sulphur, some-
times abound in the fuel, and they often occur
in the fluxing material itself. If they are very
abundant in any of the material which the
smelter has to use, it is in practice impossible
for him to prevent the combination of some of
them with the pig-iron. It then devolves either
upon the puddler, or refiner, to eliminate, besides
the carbon — to be spoken of farther on — the
greater amount of the impurities from the pig-
iron by his process. The result is dependent
not entirely upon the skill of the workman,
but more generally upon the costliness, in labour
and loss of material, of the process resorted to.

4 MINING TOOLS.

A fair amoimt of loss in weight — according to
the composition of the pig-iron — during the re-
fining, or puddling, process, caused by forming
some of the iron into cinder to attract and carry-
off the injurious substances, will contribute to
producing good bar-iron ; and severe pressure, as
in rolling, or abundant percussion, as in hammer-
ing, will extrude most of the cinder suspended
in the masses of iron which leave the puddling
fdmace, or refinery, and improve the iron to that
extent. Cheaply-made iron is not submitted to
severe mechanical treatment to expel the cinder
(some iron being even too weak and bad to stand
it), because the latter sells as bar-iron at a higher
rate than as cinder, and for the cheap production
of iron the puddler, or refiner, is expected to
bring out from his furnace a larger proportion
of wrought-iron to the quantity of pig-iron
charged, than when working for better qualitJ^

A bar of very best hammered Yorkshire iron,
one inch square, will suspend a load of 28 tons
before it breaks; and a cubic inch of such bar-iron
will weigh, as nearly as possible, 7f times more
than a cubic inch of pure water — ^both iron and
water being at the ordinary temperature of 60^
Fah. Common qualities of iron, especially those
which have not undergone sufficient mechanical
treatment during manufacture to expel the in-

INTRODUCTION. O

terposed cinder and compact the iron, and other
sorts having injurious elements in combination,
will break with a load of from 20 to 22 tons per
square inch; and a cubic inch of such quality-
will not generally weigh more than 7J times the
same volume or bulk of water. A cubic inch of
forge or mill cinder does not weigh more than
from 3f to 4 times the weight of the same volume
of water ; and the presence of some such cinder,
improperly occupying the place of iron in bars,
reduces the specific gravity of the latter, besides
impairing their strength. The very best bar-iron
contains a little cinder, some of which may be
seen to " sweat " out when at a good heat in a
clear fire.

One of the most useful and valuable properties
of wrought-iron is its capability of welding when
at a high temperature. In a good weld the union
is so complete and perfect, that upon the appli-
cation of strain there is no greater tendency to
rupture at the weld than elsewhere — that is,
supposing the cross section at the weld to be
of exactly the same area as at other points in
the bar.

It is essential for welding that the surfaces
brought into contact should be free from scale.
Iron, highly heated, scales very rapidly when in
contact with air. Scale is formed m ^ ««v\\\:l^

6 MINING TOOLS.

fire, and the more rapidly when there is only
a thin layer of fuel between the article being
heated and the twyere, because some of the blast
in an almost " raw " state touches the article ; or,
in other words, the fuel does not abstract all the
oxygen from the blast before the latter comes
into contact with the article, and the remaining
oxygen then scales it.*

Iron scale is simply iron and oxygen combined,
and commonly in the proportion of 7 of the
former to 3 of the latter by weight, so that lOlbs.
of scale contain Tibs, of iron, but sometimes
more.

Scale can be melted at a very high tempera-
ture, but it is not fusible at the welding heat of
iron, and therefore it sticks to the scarfed ends
prepared for a weld ; and wherever it thus occurs
the welding is defective, since it prevents proper
contact of the two scarfs, and consequently there
is no union at that particular part. Common

* Disregarding moisture and about x^ifth part of carbonic
acid, common atmosphere consists by volume of 79 parts of
nitrogen to 21 parts of oxygen; by weight of 77 parts of
nitrogen to 23 parts of oxygen. It is the chemical combination
of the oxygen of the air with the fuel that bums the latter.
Kearly all the coal consumed in a fire-grate goes up the
chimney in the form of carbonic acid gas, which, when pure, is
invisible. Each pound of carbon — ^fuel — requires 2§lbs. of
oxygen for its perfect combustion, and this quantity of oxygen
is contedned in ll'594lbs. of air, which, at ordinary temperature
and pressure, measure 143*62 cubic feet.

INTRODUCTION. 7

sand is more infusible than iron scale^ but in the
proportion of about 3 of sand, by weight, to
7f of scale, a compound is produced which melts
at about the temperature of 1,600® of Fah. —
the welding heat of wrought-iron approximating
2,700° Fah.

This singular melting property of mixed sand
and scale — similarly possessed by many other
compoimds — ^is of the highest value for welding
iron. The addition of a little sand to the scarfs
while they are being heated not only dissolves
the scale invariably formed in a smith's fire, but
the resulting fluid compound — chiefly tribasic
silicate of iron — forms a coating to the scarfs
largely preventing their further oxidation by the
blast. When the two scarfs are butted together
on the anvil, the sledge blows expel any liquid
slag with the greatest ease, and thus clean un-
sealed surfaces of iron are brought into contact at
a welding heat, and united before the surrounding
air has time to efiect any scaling.

Workmen should be careful to form scarfs full
in the middle, rather than dished, as is often done.
If so hollowed out, the two scarfs, upon being
brought together, resemble the cups of a closed
bullet-mould, and, being welded at the edges
first, sometimes enclose a little cinder or slag,
which weakens the weld as much as the presence

8 MINING TOOLS.

of scale. If, after welding the edges, the ham-
mering is sufficient to force out any enclosed
slag, the iron must again open at the weld, or
some other place, to admit of this. On the other
hand, when both scarfs are full in the middle,
there they first unite, and the welding proceeds
towards the edges — all the slag being easily
forced away as the welding extends.

It is proper to remark that, strictly speaking,
iron scale and sand do not chemically combine.
There are three well-known oxides of iron of the
following percentage composition : —

Per cent. Per cent.

Red oxide, or sesquioxide of iron,*

contains iron , . . . . 70*00 and oxygen 30-00
Black oxide, or magnetic oxide . - 72*41 „ 27*69

Protoxide of iron .... 77*77 „ 2223

Protoxide of iron is difficult to obtain in a
separate form, and if exposed to the atmosphere,
it is instantly changed into sesquioxide by the
absorption of more oxygen from the air; but
almost every combination of oxidized iron with
other substances occurs with the iron in the
protoxide form ; and if any other higher form of
oxide is presented for combination, it is first de-
oxidized, or reduced to protoxide, before the
combination is effected. Iron scale consists of

* Common rust is sesquioxide in combination with water.
It is known as hydrated brown oxide.

INTRODUCTION. 9

layers of mixtures of each of the above oxides.
The outermost layer contains most oxygen, and
is nearly pure sesquioxide. The middle layer is
nearly pure magnetic oxide — scale being strongly
magnetic, as may be shown with any common
horseshoe magnet — and the innermost layer,
next the iron, is a mixture of magnetic oxide and
protoxide. Sand, chemically known as silica,
will combine with iron in the protoxide state
only. At a high heat, sand in admixture with
red oxide will reduce the latter to protoxide — by
driving off some of the oxygen — and then com-
bine with the protoxide to form slag. This
occurs in the process of welding iron. The
reduction of scale to protoxide is greatly assisted,
too, by the presence of the fuel, which is nearly
all carbon, and which has a gpeat affinity for
oxygen at a high temperature.

It may be useful to observe here that, in the
absence of sand, a welding slag may be obtained
by dipping the heated scarf into finely-powdered
limestone, or unslaked lime. This is one of the
exceptional cases in which the sesquioxide com-
bines with another substance in metallurgical
operations. In the proportions of 8 of sesqui-
oxide of iron to 6 of limestone, or to 24 of un-
slaked lime, a fusible slag is formed experiment-
ally. The fact that scale and lime will fattck. ^xvs&v.

b3

10 MINING TOOLS.

a slag is occasionally taken advantage of by
smiths.

The appearance of the fracture of wrought-iron
varies with the mode and rapidity of its occur-
rence. A good bar of iron slightly nicked with
chisel or clift, and then slowly bent to and fro until
it breaks, displays a fracture full of fine, clean,
bright, silky fibres, of some shade of dark grey
colour. The same bar nicked deeper, with the
nicked part placed between supports two or three
inches apart, and there smartly struck with one
or more good blows, will break short ofi^, and show
a crystalline fracture of a colour very near that of
silver. Frequently in the piling up of pieces of
puddled bar for the succeeding process of rolling
out into finished bars, pieces of inferior quality,
yielded by pig-iron derived from cheap ores con-
taminated with phosphorus or any other injurious
element, are built into the middle of the pile.
The presence of any cold-short iron from phos-
phatic ores, thus introduced, may be discerned in
the fracture of a bar which has been broken by a
dead pull, as having a light and bright crystalline
short -broken appearance, surrounded, perhaps,
with moderately good fibre. As the strains pro-
ducing such a fracture act almost imiformly upon
the molecules of iron, it is clear that it must be
composed of different qualities to show the dis-

INTRODUCTION. 11

Bimilarity of fracture. A crystalline fracture may
be induced in the middle of a uniformly good bar
by a to-and-fro breaking movement, as at that
plac^^ — ^the neutral axis — no tensional strain from
the bending, which develops fibre, has acted upon
the iron, and the fracture of the central part being
sudden, is therefore similar to that produced by a
smart transverse blow.

Similar crystalline patches in a fibrous fracture
may result from insufficient working — incomplete
decarburization — in either the puddling furnace,
or refinery. Such is known as raw iron by forge
workmen. Its condition may range from that of
mild puddled steel up to that of cast-iron.

The appearance of the fracture of iron, wrought
or cast, is by no means a perfectly reliable index
to its quality. Very indifferent wrought -iron
sometimes shows good fibre. As a rule, the finer
the crystals and fibres are, the better the quality.
Sometimes very strong hammered charcoal-refined
iron, when smartly broken, shows a very coarse
crystalline fracture. Good bars generally have a
clean smooth skin, with their edges full and
sharp, and free from skin cracks. A similarly
clean and smooth appearance can be imparted to
inferior bars by passing them through the last
and finishing groove of the rolls at a low heat —
an arrangement being at the same time provided

12 MINING TOOLS.

for carefully removing any scale adhering to the
groore, that it may not be pressed into the skin
of the bar at the next revolution.

The quality of bar-iron is best determined by a
direct-pull testing machine, supplemented by a
smith's trial of subjecting it to bending, and to
punching near the edge, both while in a hot and
cold state, and also to a good heat to determine
its welding capability.

Good bar-iron is inclined to brittleness when
exposed to cold during frosty weather. Chains
and bars often then snap suddenly when struck.
If a bar requires slight bending during very
cold weather, it should be first slightly warmed.

Long-continued vibration, or percussion, will
resolve fibrous iron into crystalline. This is
frequently seen in broken railway- waggon axles.

Steel occupies a chemical position between
wrought and cast iron. Wrought-iron holds only
the slightest quantity of the element carbon.
Coal, soot, plumbago, and the diamond are each
carbon in a less or more pure form. In iron,
carbon can exist simply suspended or uncombined,
so that it is disseminated in distinct particles or
flakes through the iron, although these particles
may be too fine to be visible ; but in some descrip-
tions of iron they are easily perceived. It occurs

INTRODUCTION. 13

in this way in, and gives distinctive properties to,
dark grey pig-iron, and from a fresh fracture of
such pig-iron it can occasionally be picked out
with a penknife in the form of scales of graphite
or plumbago. Carbon can also exist in iron in
a chemically combined state, in which case the
physical features of the carbon are entirely lost,
as in steel, and most kinds of white pig-iron,
some of the properties of which differ widely from
those of grey pig-iron, and still more widely from
those of pure iron, or pure carbon. We have
already seen that by the chemical combination of
iron scale and sand, induced by heat, a compound
is produced, having some important qualities dif-
ferent from those of either of the substances of
which it is formed. Pig-iron holds an average
of from 3 to 5 per cent, of carbon. In dark grey
pig-iron it exists mainly in flakes of graphite,
but yet with some little in combination. Such
cast-iron is soft, is not very strong, can be
readily chipped and filed, is only very slightly
elastic, and breaks with a dull thud or leaden
sound when thrown down smartly across any
other piece of iron. Light grey and mottled pig-
irons have the carbon partly free and partly com-
bined. They are harder than dark grey under
the chisel and file, are both stronger and tougher,
break with a clearer sound, melt at a lower

14 MINING TOOLS.

temperature, and shrink more during cooling.
In white iron the carbon is nearly all in com-
bination. It is much harder than the greyer
sorts, and sometimes cannot be chipped or filed.
It breaks with a clear bell-like sound when
thrown, is very brittle, and therefore weak for
most purposes, and is used only in such castings
as require hardness without strength.

Pig or cast iron cannot be welded, but is quite
brittle under the hammer at a high red heat.
The presence of as little as 2 per cent, of carbon
deprives cast-iron of the property possessed by
wrought-iron, of becoming plastic and weldable
through a considerable range of temperature
before arriving at the melting point.

Steel contains from ^ to 2 per cent, of car-
bon. When the quantity of carbon is small,
the steel is termed " mild ; " and, seeing that it
then difiers from wrought-iron only in the matter
of about i per cent, of carbon, it naturally
partakes largely of the properties of wrought-
iron. Like it, it is readily weldable, and only
melts at a high temperature, but is stronger,
tougher, and more elastic than wrought-iron.

As the amount of carbon in steel increases,
both its melting point and weldability decrease.
Steel with 1 J per cent, of carbon very decidedly
partakes of the properties of cast-iron, and if then

INTRODUCnON. 15

capable of welding, it is so at a very mucli lower
heat than wrought-iron.

Of the several methods of manufacturing steel,
we will, in a few words, glance at only two, viz.,
Bessemer's, and the Sheffield cementation process.

The Bessemer process begins operations upon
pig-iron containing 4 or 6 per cent, of carbon.
From this, steel, containing any desired quantity
— say from J to 1 J per cent. — of carbon, is ob-
tained by blowing common air upwards through
the pig-iron in a molten state, contained in a
converting vessel, suitably lined with some very
refractory material, and having a perforated fire-
brick bottom through which the blast is intro-
duced. The converting vessel is filled with
molten iron to a depth of about two feet, and as a
column of iron that height exerts a pressure on
the bottom of the vessel of about 61bs. per
square inch, the pressure of the inflowing blast
must necessarily be above that, to prevent the
iron from running down through the perforated
fire-brick twyere. To debar the possibility of this,
and to hasten the process, blast is commonly sup-
plied at a pressure of from 151bs. to 201bs. per
square inch. The molten pig-iron thus operated
upon is run from a cupola, or air-furnace, into the
converter, the blast being, of course, turned on
before the iron comes into the vessel.

16 MINIXG TOOIJS.

Now grey cast-iron often contains as much as
2 per cent, of an element termed silicon, and the
presence of nearly this amount is requisite for the
success of the Bessemer process. Experiments
have shown that the blast first attacks the silicon,
and converts it into silica — a substance identical
with common sand — and so much heat is deve-
loped by this chemical change as to raise the tem-
perature of the mass very considerably — a favour-
able condition for the continuance of the conver-
sion. The silica produced incorporates itself
with any cinder previously existing in the pig-
iron, and further combines with any oxidized
iron, resulting from the blowing, to form cinder.
The cinder floats on the surface of the metal, and
much of it is projected through the neck of the
converter by the violent boiling of the mass.

As soon as nearly the whole of the silicon is
oxidized into silica, the blast begins to attack the
carbon, to combine with and remove it, in the
form of carbonic oxide gas, which burns with a
pale blue flame at the mouth of the converter,
and engenders an intense heat. Although upon
first thought it might scarcely have been ex-
pected, the heat developed during the combina-
tion of the silicon and carbon of the iron with the
oxygen contained in the blast is something
astonishing.

INTRODUCnON. 17

In the early days of the process, Mr. Bessemer
used to stop the blowing when so much of the
carbon had been consumed as would leave the
desired amount of that element in the fluid mass,
which would then be properly called steel. It was,
however, found impracticable to stop at the de-
sired point with any degree of accuracy, and so,
instead of attempting this, the whole of the car-
bon was burnt out, and a plan of Mr. Mushet's
adopted — that of adding to the decarburized
mass a known weight of molten pig-iron, con-
taining a known weight of carbon. Thus, if the
vessel contained 4 tons of decarburized iron, which
it was desired to form into steel having 1 per
cent, of carbon, it would be necessary to add about
901bs. of carbon — about 22|lbs. to the ton — to
effect that object. In a ton of iron known to
contain 6 per cent, of carbon, the total of carbon
amounts to 1121bs. Therefore, by melting, and
adding a ton of such iron to the 4 tons in the
converter, the whole mass of 5 tons would be
saturated with 1121bs. of carbon — one hundredth
of the whole, equal to about 22^1bs. of carbon to
the ton of metal — ^thus giving steel with 1 per
cent, of carbon, a& desired. It is seldom, in
practice, that so much as 1 per cent, of carbon is
added. Frequently it happens that by insuring
the total removal of the carbon tT;i^ ycqh ^<^\»%

18 MINING TOOLS.

overblown, resulting in the oxidation of some of
the iron itself after the carbon is all gone. By
continuing the blowing, the whole of the iron
could be burnt away in this manner. Any free
oxide of iron thus formed, and floating in the
mass, has to be removed, or its presence in the
pores of the cast-steel would greatly damage its
tenacity. The removal of such oxide is very
simply and beautifully effected thus: — ^The pig-
iron having a known percentage of carbon, and
which is added to the decarburized iron in the
converter, has also from 6 to 10 per cent, of the
metal manganese alloyed with it. Manganese,
having a greater affinity for oxygen than is pos-
sessed by iron, attacks the oxide of iron mingled
in the mass, and frees the iron by combining
with its oxygen. The oxide of manganese which
is thereby formed readily rises through the mass
and mixes with the slag, which it renders still
more fusible and liquid by its presence. Pig-
iron alloyed with sufficient manganese for the
purpose just referred to is most commonly pro-
duced in Germany, and is known as spiegeleisen.
As soon as spiegeleisen has been added to the
converter, the mass is run into ingots and cooled.
After examination, the ingots are heated, ham-
mered, and rolled into bars.

Unfortunately, blowing air through pig-iron

INTRODUCTION. 19

does not remove either sulphur or phosphorus,
and the Bessemer process is so far restricted to
the use of pig-iron containing only traces of those
elements. Daring the blowing, there is a certain
loss of weight in the charge by oxidation and
removal of silicon, carbon, and some iron ; but as
sulphur and phosphorus are not attacked or
reduced in quantity, the mass, at the termination
of the blowing, contains a larger percentage of
those elements than at the commencement.

The other process of producing steel which will
be noticed is that very extensively followed in this
country, and known as cementation. It is far less
direct than Bessemer's original, and much less
expeditious than his modified, process. The
cementing process starts with bars of good
wrought-iron, derived, almost invariably, by com-
plete decarburization of pig-iron. They are then
saturated with from ^ to 1^ per cent, of carbon to
form them into steel, the operation being simply
that of putting back a portion of an element which
once before existed in the iron. This is effected by
placing the bars in layers alternately with layers
of groimd charcoal in a rectangular "pot,** or
walled crucible, capable of holding from ten to
twenty tons of bars. Each bar is completely
surrounded with a layer of charcoal about half an
inch thick, space being allowed ioT ex^^\i^\Q^.

20 MINING TOOLS.

The " pot " 18 constructed over a fire-.place, and
is surrounded witli flues. When filled with the
layers, the top is closed with a thick plastering of
sand and clay, or any substance suitable for form-
ing a compact and gas-tight covering at a high
temperature. Fire is next kindled under the pot,
and the heat brought up to about 2,000^ Fah.,
the melting point of copper, in the course of from
twenty-four to forty-eight hours. This heat is
continued as equably as possible for from six to
nine days, the time being dependent upon the
thickness of the bars and the amount of carbon it
is desired to impart to them. If for certain bars
six days would be deemed sufficient to make
spring-Bteel, about seven days would be required
for the production of that for shear, and eight
days for that for cast steel. After conversion,
each lOOlbs. of bars has increased to from lOOJ
to lOllbs., according to the degree of carburiza-
tion. If the process were prolonged, highly-
carburized cast-iron would be produced. The
carburization is by no means uniform in the
whole of the bars, and there is often much difler-
ence at difierent points in the same bar. The
bars situated in the hottest positions absorb most
carbon. After treatment in the pot, the bars are
covered with blisters, and are known as blister'
steel.

INTRODUCTION. 21

The cause of the blistering is the subject of two
or three scientific theories. It is believed to occur
only where a little slag exists in the pores of the
bars; and as its presence weakens the tenacity
at those pointi9> the heat causes a separation and
blister by expansion, assisted by pressure from
gas generated through chemical reaction between
the advancing carbon and the impounded cinder.
It would be expected that in the best and most
uniformly worked iron the unexpressed cinder
would be most imiformly distributed, and so cause
a regular arrangement of small blisters over
the steel. The best iron does yield such steel,
whereas inferior bars, after conversion, display
large and small blisters of very irregular occur-
rence.*

♦ CASE-HABDENiNa wTought-iroii is eflfected by the applica-
tion of the cementation process during a short time only. Case-
hardened turned and fitted pieces of iron are frequently used
in the gearing of engines and machines, and for other purposes.
Axles and journals are sometimes thus superficially hardened,
as are also screw-bolt nuts which have to be frequently moved
with a spanner. This occasionally very serviceable process is
conducted in the following manner : — In a wrought-iron box of
suitable size, made of sheet-iron or boiler-plate, is laid a layer
of dried parings of leather, horns, or hoofs, to nearly an inch in
depth. If thought proper, these substances may be previously
charred enough to admit of their being crumbled into coarse
dust for use in layers. Upon the bottom layer are placed some
of the articles to be hardened, with not less than quarter-inch
spaces between them. These spaces are then carefully filled
with the dried parings or charred powder, and the iron articles
are overlaid with not less than one-quarter inch ot tVi<& %».\£l^

22 MINING TOOLS.

In cast-steel the carbon is more uniformly
distributed than in blister-steel. It is manufac-

carbtirizing material. Alternate layers of iron articles and
parings are arranged, finishing with a top layer of parings of
not much loss than an inch in thickness, as at the bottom, ends,
and sides of the box. A flanged cover is placed oyer, or a
plain cover is dropped into a rabbet in, the top of the box, and
tho joint well luted with fireclay, to exclude air as perfectly
as possible, llie box is then placed in any heating furnace or
fire at hand, gradually raised to a good red heat, and steadily
maintained at that heat for from half to three or four hours,
according to depth to which it is required to carburize. Two
hours will carburize some qualities of iron to a depth of nearly
ono-sixteenth of an inch. Upon withdrawal from the fire, the
box may be opened and the articles at once dipped in cold
water, when they will be hardened to the depth to which they
are carburized ; or the box may be covered with ashes and
allowed to cool slowly, after which the articles must be heated
and quenched, as in ordinary hardening. Cast-iron boxes can
be used for the case-hardening process, but require more care
in handling. The case, while in the fire, being always hotter
than its contents, allows for &ee expansion of the latter ; but
if allowed to remain in the case until cold, the case, from its
earlier cooling, contracts first, and is thus capable of throwing
enough of strain upon delicate articles within to distort them.
To prevent bending in any of the articles, a heat sufficient to
soften them should be avoided, otherwise the unequal pressure
from the top layers will alter the form of the bottom ones.
The leather and hoof parings, &c., used in the above process,
besides being carbonaceous, are nitrogenous. Some chemists
assert that nitrogen is essential to the conversion of steel, and,
further, that it exists in all steel. Others dispute both these
statements, especially the latter. The presence of nitrogen
may have a catalytic influence upon the carburizing process.
A convenient and ready means of case-hardening to a slight
depth, for polishing, or moderate wearing, purposes, is simply to
sprinkle upon the red-hot article powdered yellow prussiate of
potash (ferrocyanide of potassium). This substance, during
the few seconds the requisite temperature exists, effects carbu-

INTRODUCTION. 23

tured by cutting up the latter into small pieces,
and melting them in crucibles, then casting into
ingots, and afterwards tilting the ingots into bars.
The melting is generally conducted in small
draught coke furnaces, similar to those used for
melting brass in pots. It being necessary to
exclude the air, the pots are closed with covers.
The heat required is manifestly above that
required for welding cast- steel. From this pro-
cess, it is evident that simply heating steel to a
high temperature, even above its melting-point,
does not injure it if air is excluded. Air present

rization enough to give a hajrdened surface upon quenching in
water. By returning the article after sprinkling to a quiet fire,
and re-sprinkling once or twice before quenching, hardness to
a greater depth may be obtained. Yellow prussiate of potash
is prepared from skins, horns, woollen rags, &c., and consists
percentically yery nearly of — potassium, 37 ; carbon, 17 ;
nitrogen, 20 ; iron, 13 J ; water of crystallization, 12 J. The
latter is driven off upon the application of heat.

Malleable cast-iron, the introduction of which is daily
progressing, is prepared by cementation, the object being to
withdraw instead of to introdtcce carbon. In most foundries the
details of the process are kept strictly secret, but the points
refer chiefly to the kind of pig-iron used. After objects are
cast in the usual way, they are embedded in red iron ore — ses-
quioxide of iron — then raised to a bright heat, bordering on
fusion, and kept at that temperature for from two to four days,
according to the size of the articles and depth to which it is
needful to decarburize them. The red oxide of iron at this heat
parts with some of its oxygen, which combines, through stronger
aflBnity, with the carbon of the casting, by that means forming
a gas which escapes. The iron ore is reduced to the state of
magnetic oxide, and possibly lower. Cast-iron so treated is
toughened, and afforded malleability when cold.

24 MINING TOOLS.

in a smith's forge instantly acts upon hot steel,
by removing some of its carbon and oxidiz-
ing or burning some of its iron — both effects
injuring the steel if they occur beyond a very
small extent. For this reason a difference exists
between the processes of welding steel and iron.
While heating wrought-iron the scarfs are allowed
to scale to a slight extent, in order that a protect-
ing cinder may be formed by the scale and sand
when the latter is applied. During the heating
of steel for welding, it is sought to prevent oxida-
tion altogether. This is done by dipping the
steel, at a dark red heat, into powdered borax,
which of itself forms a liquid glaze at a low tem-
perature. By heating in a clear fire, and fre-
quently adding borax, scaling of the steel may be
entirely prevented, seeing that the borax glaze
protects it exactly as the fusible cinder protects
wrought-iron. >

Shear-Bteel is obtained by cuttmg blister-steel
into lengths, then piling them into faggots, and
afterwards getting them up to a welding heat, so
that they may be drawn out into bars under a
tilt-hammer. The product is known as single-
shear steel. When single-shear bars are in like
manner cut up, faggoted, and drawn out, the
product is called double-shear steel. During the
shear-steel process the percentage of carbon is

INTRODUCTION. 26

some what reduced in course of heating and ham-
mering; but it is clear that shear-steel has its
carbon more uniformly disposed than blister-steel.
The presence of the carbon in steel very singu-
larly renders it capable of being hardened to a
very high degree ; and, whether in a soft or hard
state, steel is materially stronger than the pig, or
wrought iron, from which it was made. The
reason why heated steel becomes hardened by a
sudden and great reduction of temperature is not
perfectly understood. Singularly enough, it be-
comes slightly increased in volume during the
process, so that a cubic inch of soft steel measures
rather more than that size after it has been hard-
ened : consequently, for equal bulks, soft is heavier
than hardened steel. In usual practice, heated
steel is hardened by sudden quenching in a fluid.
"Water, oil, and mercury are the fluids most com-
monly used. Neither of them is a good conductor
of heat ; nevertheless, they rapidly abstract heat
from an immersed article by the processes of con-
duction and convection. When a molecule of
either of these fluids touches something hotter
than itself, it abstracts heat by conduction, and
accordingly expands in volume. It consequently
becomes lighter for equal volumes than the sur-
rounding molecules, and is pressed upwards
towards the surface by them. Fresh molecxiiftj^

c

26 MINING TOOLS.

then touch and expand, and in their turn are
pushed upwards by the colder and denser ones,
and thus an ascending current is formed, each
atom of which takes away some heat from the
article immersed. For equal additions of tempe-
rature, water expands about two and a half times
more than mercury ; but, on the other hand, the
same quantity of heat that would raise a given
weight of water one degree, would raise the same
weight of mercury thirty degrees ; hence, for
equal quantities of heat imparted to equal weights
of water and mercury, the mercury expands about
eleven and a half times more than the water,
which results in its partaking of a much quicker
motion, by which the heat is conveyed away more
rapidly than in the case of water. Mercury is
the most useful of all fluids for disclosing the
presence of carbon by the hardening process. It
will harden steel that has too small a quantity of
carbon to be ajBTected by water.

Oil is not quite such a good conductor of heat
as water. A quantity of heat that would raise a
given weight of water one degree, would raise
the same weight of olive oil three and a qiiarter
degrees. For equal increments of heat, the rate
of expansion of olive and most oils is nearly
double that of water. For equal quantities of heat
imparted to equal weights of oil and water, the

•

INTRODUCTIOX. 27

oil expands five and a half times more than the
water, and would thereby ascend from a heated
article, by the influence of convection, much more
rapidly than would result with water, and, so far,
would insure quicker cooling ; but as it happens
that a red heat carbonizes oil, any red-hot article
plunged into it is immediately coated with a little
charred oil, which largely prevents further con-
tact between the liquid and the article immersed,
and thus retards the cooling process.

It must be remarked that at 212° Fah. water
is vaporized, as is mercury at 660° ; and since
even highly-carburized steel requires a dull red
heat, say 1,200°, before hardening can be effected
by quenching, it follows that upon its immersion
in water or mercury, either of these fluids is
necessarily vaporized, and the hardening is
effected in an envelope of vapour. The simple
changing of state from fluid to vapour instanta-
neously abstracts a very large amount of heat,
which becomes latent in the vapour. The vapour,
being so much lighter than the fluid, in a moment
rushes upwards, where it is condensed,* if covered
with sufficient fluid, and is followed by succeeding

♦ In the case of water-hardening, if any scaling has occurred
in the water by which some of the latter haa necessarily been
decomposed— its oxygen having gone to form the scale— the
liberated hydrogen is not condensed by the overlying water,
but escapes as gas,

c2

28 MINING TOOLS.

portions of vapour — the effect being a very speedy
reduction of heat in the article immersed.

The degree of hardness imparted depends upon
the difference of temperature between the heated
steel and the cooling medium. The greater that
difference, the greater the resulting hardness ; but
while very hot steel quenched in very cold water
is made extremely hard, the long range of cooling
here involved is so violently sudden as often to
fracture steel so treated, or, if not that, it induces
such unequal internal strains as occasion great
liability to break from percussion or sudden
strains. Thin strips of steel at a strong heat can
be harden ed in boiling water. Highly-carburetted
steel is more sensitive to hardening, and becomes
harder, than mild steel containing less carbon.
It requires more care than the latter, being far
more liable to fly. It consequently does not bear
heating so high as mild steel before quenching.
In cold weather water is generally warmed to
about 60^ Fah. before it is used for hardening. If
during cold weather anything thin is hardened in
warmed water, and then quickly exposed to cold
air, especially to a cold draught, the further
reduction of temperature frequently causes the
steel to fly, unless of mild quality.

For the sake of tenacity and toughness, the
lowest possible heat requisite for producing the

INTRODUCTION. 29

desired hardness should be imparted to the steel
prior to quenching, because then occurs the least
range of reduction in temperature, which is
attended with the least tendency to disruption
within the steel. A matter of great significance
is the fact that steel hardened in oil is not merely
toughened, but is likewise increased in tenacity.
Steel hardened in water bears less pulling strain
than the same steel in a perfectly soft state.
Smiths have long practised hardening screw-taps
and other tools in oil for toughening them ; but,
until demonstrated by Mr. Kirkaldy, it was not
understood that steel so hardened was much in-
creased, but was rather believed to be decreased,
in tenacity. Experimenting upon pieces of the
same bar of chisel-steel, of unusually good quality,
that gentleman found that one piece in a perfectly
soft state broke with a pulling strain of 54 tons
to the square inch of cross area ; another piece,
highly heated and hardened in water, with 40
tons ; another piece, hardened at same heat, and
tempered to "yellow,'* with 45 tons; another,
similarly hardened, and tempered with tallow to
" spring " temper, with 47 tons ; another, so
hardened and tempered to " blue,*' with 50 tons ;
another, highly heated and quenched in oil,
required 96 tons per square inch to break it.
Each piece was turned down in a lathe to aboxit

30 MINING TOOLS.

half an incli diameter before the experiments were
begun. As regards quenching in oil, it was foimd
that the higher the steel was heated before dip-
ping, the stronger it became. The reverse of this
is true with water-hardening. That there is a
wide difference, chemically and physically, between
the operations of hardening in water and oil will
be readily perceived. Water is composed, by
weight, in round numbers, of 89 per cent, of
oxygen, and 11 per cent, of hydrogen — both of
these elements being gases when in a free state.
Their affinity for each other when combined, as
in water, is not very strong. Red-hot iron easily
breaks the combination, by taking the oxygen to
itself, and freeing the hydrogen as gas. "When
a large and highly-heated piece of iron is im-
mersed to a shallow depth in water, it fires the
liberated hydrogen gas, which may be seen burn-
ing in yellowish-blue flames on the surface of the
water. With lower heats and greater depth of
water, hydrogen does not take fire, but it always
escapes, if unobserved, when iron is in the least
degree scaled by the action of water. The oxygen
seized by the iron forms the well-known scale,
which, being thin, brittle, and instantly cooled,
is peeled off and drops away by the later contrac-
tion of the iron. It has been observed, in the
foregoing notices of the Bessemer and other

INTRODUCTION. 31

metallurgical processes, that when oxygen is
brought into contact with a highly-heated mixture
of iron and carbon, as ordinary pig-iron, the
carbon first combines with oxygen — the affinity
between these two being greater than between
iron and oxygen. When hot steel is dipped in
water, and decomposes the latter, the same ratio
of affinity for oxygen exists between the iron and
carbon forming the steel, and it is probable that
the carbon is removed to a greater depth than the
iron is scaled, in proportion to the greater or lesser
heat of the steel. It might be expected that the
sudden movement among the molecules of steel,
during the rapid fall of temperature in hardening,
would diminish its tenacity, and this might be
somewhat promoted by a slight decarburization
of its surface, if such is assumed to occur.

Now wood — which, when heated without access
of air, yields charcoal, besides some liquid and
gaseous products — has an average composition of
— carbon, 52^ ; hydrogen, 5J ; and oxygen, 42^
per cent. Olive oil, which is similar in composi-
tion to most common oils, contains — carbon, 77 ;
hydrogen, 13J ; and oxygen, 9^ per cent. ; and
in the absence of air becomes carbonized or charred
at between 600^ and 700^ Fah. An ordinary red
heat, visible in daylight, is of about 1,000° or
1,100° Fah. in temperature, so that red-hot iron.

32 MINING TOOLS.

or steel, if covered with oil, will readily char the
latter. This occurs in oil-hardening. A coating
of soot covers the article after the process, instead
of the scale attendant upon water-hardening.
This sooty covering attached to the steel being a
bad conductor of heat, greatly retards the rate of
cooling, and in this respect the process resembles
annealing, in giving the molecules some time
for equable arrangement. At a red heat carbon
will combine with iron, or, at the same heat,
will disunite itself from iron to combine with
any element at hand, as oxygen, for which it has
a greater affinity. It is possible that during the
short time a red heat exists in steel immersed in
oil, a slight carburization or case-hardening of the
skin occurs, from the presence of sooty carbon —
a process exactly the reverse of that presumed to
occur by water-hardening. Regarding this point,
and still more the retarded rate of cooling, a wide
difference is to be expected between the effects of
immersion of hot steel in oil and in water.

When numbers of any article are to be hardened,
a special heating furnace is made, suitable to the
size and number of the articles it is desired to
have together in the furnace. As one hot article
is withdrawn, a cold one is introduced, which
becomes hot enough for dipping by the time its
turn comes. Such articles are generally supported

INTRODUCTION. 33

above the fuel, that they may be in contact with
flame only ; and flame-giving coal, in small lumps,
is constantly thrown on the fire by hand, and the
draught regulated with a damper, to produce an
abundance of smoky flame. When articles thus
heated are withdrawn for quenching, they are
coated with hot soot, instead of scale, and the steel
suflers no damage. In furnaces for this purpose,
heated by carbonic oxide gas, the admission of air
for its combustion is so regulated that the gas
is always in slight excess ; accordingly, the oxygen
of the air admitted is all appropriated by the gas,
leaving none to scale the articles.

Sometimes a bath of molten lead, kept at a con-
stant red heat, and covered with sawdust, is
employed for heating articles for hardening. No
scaling occurs during heating by this mode.

All hardening operations are, for the sake of
judging heats, best conducted in the dark ; and
darkened shops are for this purpose provided in
establishments where hardening is extensively
practised.

Chisels, borers, &c., to be hardened are gene-
rally treated for this purpose in a smith's fire at
the time they are made or repaired. It is well to
have them thoroughly covered with fuel, and far
enough from the twyere to prevent contact of the
blast with the steel.

c3

34 MINING TOOLS.

Several theories to account for the hardening
of steel have been propounded by distinguished
chemists and others. There is not compass for
inserting any of them here.

The operation of tempering steel requires as
much skill and judgment as, or even more than,
hardening. The theories to account for hardening
are elaborated to explain the phenomenon of
tempering. One or two of them are supported
by considerable probability, but not perfect proof.

It is desirable to use all tools at the lowest pos-
sible temper compatible with the performance of
their work. The lower the temper, the stronger
and tougher is the steel, and therefore the longer
it will endure in work ; but in all cases the hard-
ness of the tool must be so much in excess of the
hardness of the material operated upon, as shall
remove the necessity of too frequent grinding or
sharpening. It occasionally happens in rock-boring
operations that tools having the utmost hardness
are *' blunted,'' from the very refractory nature
of the ground, after a few blows only, although
with light percussion the edges may not " fly."
When a tool is to be prepared for work, it is first
hardened, and then some of the surface around the
cutting edge is filed, ground, or rubbed up cold to
a clean and bright surface. Heat is then applied
to the hardened portion, and the brightened sur-

INTRODUCTION. 35

face 18 carefully watched for the colours produced,
which always succeed each other in regular order
as the temperature increases. The order accord-
ing to which they appear is as follows: pale
yellow, straw yellow, golden yellow, brown, brown
dappled with purple, purple, bright blue, full
blue, and dark blue.

Experience has shown that for edge-tools, saws,
files, &c., for specific purposes — which should
always be made of steel having the most suitable
percentage of carbon — certain of the above colours
are particularly suitable ; but the best colour and
temper vary somewhat in tools for the same
purposes when there is a difierence in the amount
of carbon in the steel from which they are made.
The steel possessing most carbon must be brought
to the lowest temper.

Brightened surfaces of iron, when heated,
acquire colours in the same manner and order as
steel, but not so distinctly, and a higher tempera-
ture is required to produce any given colour.
When iron and hardened steel, both brightened,
are similarly heated together, the iron will have
acquired only a straw colour when the steel is
purple or bright blue.

Both hardening and tempering of many things,
as chisels, borers, &c., are performed by a single
heating. Their cutting edges are first d\Y^^^

36 MINING TOOLS.

and hardened, and then immediately j&led, or
ground, or rubbed bright. The heat stored up
further back in such tools is sufficient to bring the
edges gradually down to the colour required,
whereupon further progress is arrested by instant
quenching. When hardening and tempering are
made two separate operations, first by completely
cooling the article for hardening, and next by
raising it to the necessary tempering heat, the
heat for the latter object is sometimes imparted
by holding the article in a flame, or on some hot
substance ; but when quantities are to be tem-
pered, metallic baths are provided for heating
them. Metals melt at certain constant tempera-
tures, and mixtures of them melt at certain inter-
mediate constant temperatures. Experiments
having shown what temperatures are required to
produce certain temper colours, the proper alloys
are prepared, and kept just melted, so that articles
dipped into them acquire the desired temper with
great certainty and uniformity.

The following table shows the melting points of
certain alloys, and some of the articles for which
such tempering heats are employed : —

IMTRODUCriON.

Mtltinff

Lead Tin.

^IS.

Culoar.

PS-

White

Lancets

74

*30

Yellovriah white

SuTsical iiiBtrumciits.

442

Very pale yellow

Best raeora.

H

450

Pale straw

llazora.

Itl

^

470

FuU 7eEow

Commoa raiors and
larffB pen- knives.

n

^

490

Brown

Shf ara, scissora, cold
ehiitelB.

Ifl

4

filO

Brown, dappled
with purple

Hiittheta.planeirOM,
poeket-kniTea.

20

4

£30

Purple

Tuble-km?CB, large

Bhoars,
Swnrda, watch and

iS

4

MO

Bright blue

bell eptin^s.

sa

2

fiGS

Pull blna

Fine Raws, Buyers.

Boiling

600

Dark blue

Pit and band saws.

limned

oil

Those colours ranging from straw, for very liard
ground, to bright blue, for mild ground, ara
commonly selected for tempering rock-borers,
picks, &c., according as the ground may require
them to possess greater or less hardneas. When
hard ground ia also Tery cellular and much
fissured, so as t« cause unequal strains on the
cutting edges of the tools, then it is necessary to
lessen their liability to break through brittleneas,
by adopting a somewhat lower temper than would
be adapted for use in ground uniformly solid.

By far the best temper for boring and other
tools is that obtained by heating them only so
much . as shall, upon quenching, gvxe ^\is> -^TC'^t

38

hardnesB at once. To |Ma&nm this h is, of oooTBe,
not Beceaewv to heat the steel as miich as for full
hardeniog, and ther ef ore such considerable and
irregular strains are not prodnoed within the
steel as are often erinced hv water crackB and
the breaking away of pieces nnder slight strain.
Tempering, without first hardening, as just men-
tioned, requires mnch judgment regarding the
proper heat, which is dependent npon the nature
of the steel, whether mild or otherwise. The
system is always attended with some failures,
often to sach an extent as to preclude a pur-
suance of it.

Passing to another subject — ^that of fuel —
which is of some importance in the preparation
of miners' picks, boring tools, &c., a few observa-
tions will suffice.

Coal that is slightly caking or binding in its
nature is most useful for a smith's fire when
an intense beat is required, seeing that the heat
is reflected and concentrated within the vault
formed before the blast; and such coal yields
plenty of flame when required for any purpose.
The most important points relating to any forg-
ing coal are the quantity and nature of the ash
and clinker or cinder which result from burning
it. A coal may yield a large quantity of ash,
yot bo useful for pretty high heats, providing the

INTRODUCTION. 39

ash 18 white, and does not form any sticky cinder
upon the " heats/' Many caking coals contain a
considerable amount of iron pyrites, which is occa-
sionally invisible, but more generally can be seen
in the form either of yellowish spots, crystals, or
thin plates. Iron pyrites consists solely of 8 parts
of sulphur, by weight, to 7 parts of iron. Cold
sulphur brought into contact with red-hot iron
readily combines with it, and forms a sulphide of
iron, of which there are several kinds, having
different proportions of sulphur. On the other
hand, when sulphide of iron — especially the one
known as iron pyrites — is made red hot with
free access of air or blast, some solid sulphur
separates by sublimation, and most of the re-
mainder flies off in gases of various compositions,
while the place of the sulphur, in connection with
the iron of the pyrites, becomes occupied by
oxygen with which the iron forms the well-
known red or sesquioxide, and this red oxide of
iron so formed it is which gives the reddish-
brown colour to the ashes of " red-ash " coal.
During the burning of such coal the solid sulphur
liberated by sublimation acts very injuriously
upon highly-heated iron, or " scarfs " heated for
welding, by becoming incorporated with the
welding cinder, and communicating red-shortness
to the iron. Some coals have clay shale xavsj^iL

40 MINING TOOLS.

With them, and occasionally silica and a little
lime. The shale often forms a sticky paste upon
the heats. In other coals, shale, silica, and any
red oxide of iron from pyrites, form a fusible
cinder which goes to the bottom of the hearth.
When shale sticks to the heat, it is a source of
danger to the welding, and of great irritation to
the workmen. When an abundance of clinker
is formed, the fire has too often to be raked out
to keep the twyere clean, that good heats may
be obtained. Many coals, unsuited for smiths'
forges, can be made useful for the purpose by
thoroughly washing them by one of the several
methods in existence.

Table of Heats, Melting Points, &c.

Fah. Fah.

Water freezes . . ... ... at 32

Olive oil freezes . . . „ 36

Summer heat in England „ 75 to 80

Blood heat „ 98

Water boils „ 212

Sulphur melts » 218

Tin melts „ 426 to 442

Bismuth melts „ 476 to 607

Lead melts „ 694 to 630

Mercury boils ,» 661

Zinc melts „ 680 to 700

Iron : red heat hardly visible in dark . . „ 700

red heat visible in dark . . . . „ 810

dark red heatjust visible in daylight „ 980

dark red heat „ 1,200

INTRODUCTION. 41

Fah.. Fall.
Dg. Dg.

Iron : commencing cherry red . , . .at 1,470

strong cherry red „ 1,650

full cherry red „ 1,800

Silver fuses „ 1,870

Iron, dark yellow heat ........ 2,000

Copper melts „ 1,990 to 2,140

Iron : light glowing heat ....... 2,200

white heat „ 2,370

strong white heat ,,2,550

bright white heat „ 2,700 to 2,900

Cast-iron melts „ 2,740 to 3,090

Steel fuses „ 3,090 to 3,450

Wrought-iron fuses „ 3,450 to 3,800

BOEEES.

Tools for penetrating rocks by bore-holes are
every day contributory to the accomplishment of
the miner's ultimate purpose. The rock-borers,
we have to notice, work either by percussion, or
by revolving under weight or pressure. They are
sometimes termed " drills '' or " augers."*

The cutting or operating part — termed the
"bit" — of a borer is nearly always formed of
steel.

Percussion borers are by far the more exten-
sively used. It is difficult to get a steel bit to
stand well for a revolving borer, except in rocks
which are not very hard, such as coal, salt, fief

* Nitric or hydrochloric acid, passed down a small funnelled
glass tube drop by drop, is capable of making vertical holes in
some rocks. Limestone, magnetic ore, and native copper have
been acted upon in this way. Iron pyrites also, which is some-
what impregnable to a steel bit, will yield to this treatment.
The process is slow. Acids are also used for enlarging the
bottoms of holes to receive the charges.

t Very hard minerals — ^black diamonds — mounted on the end
of a revolving borer,- have been found to answer very well,
excepting their expensiveness.

BORERS. 43

•

In percussion borei^s the hloio Is frequently pro-
duced by the force of gravity acting upon the tool
itself. The common "jumper" represented by
Fig. 1 is an example. It consists of a bar of
iron with a steel bit formed on each extremity,
and having a swell or " bead " formed between,
to give it greater weight. The bead divides the
jumper into two "stocks" of unequal lengths.
The shorter one is used for commencing a bore-
hole, and the longer one for finishing it, and
often the bit on the long stock is made a trifle
smaller than the other, to remove any chance of
its not following into the hole which has been
commenced.

To properly use the jumper, it must be held by
both hands in the direction of the required hole,
and a series of sharp blows must be produced, by
lifting it up about a foot high and letting it drop,
assisted by a little force, so that by the concus-
sion of the bit against the rock, the latter gets
gradually pounded or nibbled away, and by
slightly turning the jumper between each blow,
a round hole can be bored very truly with a little
expertness.

The jumper is well adapted for boring ordinary
holes which are intended to be vertical, or nearly
so ; but it is not suitable in other cases. Although
very serviceable tools in quarries and open cut-

44 MINING TOOLS.

tings, jumpers are not often used underground ;
but it is found more convenient to use instead
borers Having bits at one end only, so that the
comminuting eflFect may be produced by strildng
on the other end with a hammer or sledge — the
borer being turned slightly between each blow,
to secure a round hole in the rock. These are
sometimes called " striking borers *' for distinct-
ness, and they are most extensively used.

The jumper is considered to have what is
termed a liveliness in its fall — due to direct impact
— which gives it greater effectiveness in cutting
vertical holes than accompanies the use of the
striking borer under similar conditions.*

Frequently the steel bits of borers get broken
or blunted in use, and the re-sharpening of them
is the work of a smith — sometimes requiring the
employment of considerable skill. A smith who
can sharpen well is always held in esteem by
miners having to work in hard ground, and, to
say the least, he is a valuable miner's coadjutant.

If a borer is to stand well, five things must be

* Whenever it is possible, it is usual to keep water in a bore-
hole, to facilitate the work and to assist in preserving the
sharpness of the bit. This converts the boring dust into a wet
sludge, and to keep it from splashing out and over the person
boring, a piece of leather, having a hole in the middle, is placed
over the stock of the borer, thus forming a collar above the
mouth of the hole. Sometimes a small hay-band is wrapped
around the stock instead.

BORERS. 45

secured, viz. : 1st, good steel ; 2nd, good smith's
coal ; 3rd, a well-shaped bit ; 4th, good temper-
ing ; and 5th, fair- jumping or striking, and good
turning when the borer is in use. There are
also two things to be avoided, viz. : 1st, over-
heating in the smith's shop ; and, 2nd, very heavy
blows in forging.

Before steel was as plentiful and cheap as at
present, all borers were usually made of bars of
iron, with a tongue of shear or blister steel
welded in a " split weld " at the extremity, in-
tended to form the bit. At many places these
borers are still used.

Shear-steel is most suitable for forming the bit,
and, to preserve its good qualities, a careful smith
will sometimes draw out the iron to overlap the
steel like two ears — sprinkling over plenty of
sand or borax to form a flux, in order to keep the
steel from losing its nature in the fire. Some-
times the steel and iron will be heated sepa-
rately — the steel tongue, heated to bright redness, .
being put between the split of the iron bar upon
drawing the latter out of the fire with a welding
heat.

Striking borers of this class are now being
superseded by borers made entirely of casUsteel,
which is generally drawn under the tilt-hammer
into octagonal bars called '' borer-steel."

46 MINING TOOLS.

A bar of steel being stiflTer and stronger than
iron, admits of using steel borers with stocks of a
smaller diameter — i.e, lighter — than if made of
iron. Consequently a hammer-blow of given in-
tensity will be transmitted with greater effective-
ness through a steel borer than an iron one,
because — ^independently of its superior firmness
or solidity of texture — to satisfy the inertia of a
borer, the lesser quantity of matter in a steel one
will not require to appropriate as much of the
effect of the blow as in the case of a heavier iron
one. This is also one reason why a short borer
is fnore effective than a long one. We have in
some cases realised like advantage by using very
small steel stocks, upset at the bit end to the
usual size ; but these borers require more than
ordinary care. The use of steel borers is, more-
over, favoured by their comparative lightness for
transport through the mine ; but they are more
easily broken than iron by careless conveyance.

Some sorts of borer-steel are greatly superior
to others. Actual use is the only reliable test.
We have referred to this subject in our Introduc-
tion. Many different qualities are in the market
at from £28 to £60 per ton. The price is a very
poor criterion to quality. Good shear-steel for
iron-stock borers costs from 455. to 55s. per cwt. ;
blister-steel about 35s. per cwt. ; and suitable iron

BORERS. 47

from £8 to £10 per ton. Common iron bars,
hard and crystalline, answer well.

Experience has always shown that good coal is
of great importance in forging and tempering
steel. The impurities of dirty coal affect the
composition of steel, and probably its molecular
arrangement, so as to impair its most valuable
properties. This subject has also been before
alluded to.

The bit of a borer is generally formed by flat-
tening and spreading out the end of the bar until
about a quarter of an inch thick, and a little
wider than the diameter of the hole intended to
be bored. A sharp edge is then hammered or
filed up, and the comers hammered in at inter-
vals, until the width of the bit corresponds with
the diameter of the intended hole. Sometimes
the edge is filed up with a rasp ; but when it has
to be used in boring hard ground, it is better
formed by tapping with the face of a light ham-
mer, and afterwards touching it up with a file.

The edge is sometimes made " straight,'* as in
Fig. 2, or "bowed '' (curved), as in Fig. 3. In a
set of borers intended to work in succession, if
any difference is made in the widths of the bit,
the long borers should be slightly narrower than
the short ones, to allow them to follow easily in
deep holes.

48 MINING TOOLS.

The shaft of a borer is generally from a
quarter to three-quarters of an inch, and for the
larger sizes an inch, smaller in diameter than the
width of the bit when finished. In very hard
ground the corners of the bit break off if it is
much wider than the diameter of the bar.

The following are about the average propor-
tions of the diameter of the stock to that of the
hoky employed with borer-steel : —

Diameter of hole
or width of bit. Diameter of stock.

1 inch f

14
li

2

2J.

24

f

i
1

1*

li
If

1*

The contained angle between the two sides of
the cutting edge, as seen in section across the
edge itself, and represented by Fig 4, is com-
monly about 80° or 90°, but varies from 60° to
100°.

In free-boring ground, or groimd which is
tough, but not hardy the edge may be rather
acute ; but in hard ground the edge should have
greater obtuseness.

A curved or bow bit is stronger in the comers
than a straight one, consequently in hard ground

BORERS. 49

the bow bit is the better one for standing ; still, in
softer ground the straight bit answers well, and
is considered to cut its way more freely, but it is
not so readily forged.

By hammering in the corners of a bit, care
should be taken to preserve the splay throughout
to the extremity, by properly inclining the face
of the hammer. When this is neglected, the
comers get " nipped," as in Fig. 5, and the bit
will not free itself in cutting.

When one part of the edge of a bit is " back-
ward,'' as shown by Fig. 6, or when a bit is
" odd-cornered,'' as in Fig. 7, the onward parts
have to bear too much from the blows; for, by
turning the borers in the holes, these parts have
constantly to cut away the rock, while the other
parts do not encounter any work. In this way
the edge soon gets damaged, and frequently the
overstrained part flies ofi*, and causes much
trouble by remaining in the hole. We have
examined blunted and broken bits having such
defects, and found that some parts of the edge
had not even touched the face of the hole while
in use. If a smith has a good eye, he can largely
obviate the defect here mentioned ; but the best
sometimes fail. Somewhat recently the writer's
father contrived a tool for sharpening borers,
which gives satisfactory results. It is represented

D

50 MINING TOOLS.

in two side views by Figs. 8 and 9, and is simply
a kind of swage made of steel, and having, in tlie
bottom part, a groove of the same form as the
edge of the bit is required to assume. The swage
is placed upon the heated and flattened bit end of
the borer — which is represented by dotted lines
— and a few blows struck on the top of the swage
mould the bit, and form an even and uniform
edge. After the corners are hammered in, the
swage is again applied, and another blow or two
struck upon it.

When curved edges are required, the swages
can be made three or four at a time, all centred
on a lathe face-plate, as shown in Fig. 10, and
the sharp V groove can be turned out of the
lot with a bent V point tool. They can be used
also as bottom swages, and the borer-bits ham-
mered down on them ; but there is some diffi-
culty in keeping the scale out of the groove.

The greater durability of borer-bits sharpened
by the tool described is referable to the regular
evenness of the edge, and the eflPect of the swage
in compacting the steel without straining its
particles, as in the ordinary case of hammering
the edge, first on one side and then on the other,
in succession.

The tempering of bits exercises an almost para-
mount influence upon their durability and service.

BOKERS. 5 1

When the rock to be bored is very hard,
or when traversed by hard veins or interspersed
with nodules of closely-compacted siliceous and
other obdurate minerals, then very careful tem-
pering is required.

Some elvan courses and tinny capel are almost
impenetrable ; so that a hundred borers are known
to have been blunted in them by two men in a
single core, and all the work done for it would
be about three inches of boring, costing over
2«. 6d. per inch. Compact iron pyrites also
defies penetration in a very similar way.

But when the rock is of a more yielding nature
and of equable texture, then great nicety of tem-
pering is not so indispensable.

The usual method of tempering borers is as
follows : — ^About four inches of the bit end — pre-
viously sharpened — ^is heated to cherry redness in
the fire.* It is then immersed in cold water to a
depth of about three-quarters of an inch, and tho-
roughly chilled or " hardened.'' f The remaining

* If it is so arranged that sufficient heat remains in the bit
end, after sharpening, to avoid again exposing it to the fire, and
to proceed to temper direct from the anvil, it is better than re-
heating for tempering, and thereby further submitting the
steel to the effect of the blast and heat.

t At this stage of the process the bit should not be steadily-
held in one place, but it should be slightly moved up and down
in the water, else the hardness will terminate abruptly in a
line corresponding with the surface of the water, and the
different conditions of the molecules of steel above and below

D 2

52 MINING TOOLS.

hot portion is next plunged in altogether for a
short time, still leaving sufficient heat in it for tem-
pering, and then the borer is entirely withdrawn.
The heat still remaining in the body of the borer
and adjoining the bit will be conveyed through
the particles of steel towards the hardened edge,
and the hardness will be thereby reduced, while
the increasing temperature of the bit will be
marked by first a yellow and then the succeeding
hues, creeping on towards the edge. If the scale
be rubbed oflP with, say, a little grit-stone, the
colours are very plainly visible, and when the
proper tint appears, the borer is plunged into
water, and the tempering finished.

After first observing the proper tint, instead of
plunging the bit finally into water in the usual
manner, if the edge is simply dipped in— say
half an inch deep — it will be chilled sufficiently
to let the colour creep on again, so that the same
colour can be produced in this way three or four
times before final cooling, and when the trouble
is taken an improved tempering is believed by
many to result ; but it is not often practised.

With bits having much convexity or bow, the
colour creeps on to the corners before it reaches

that line will there render the borer weak, and almost certainly
cause it to break off at that point during work. Numerous
persons are perplexed through not recognising this cause of
fracture.

BORERS. 53

the middle, so that it has to be checked by dipping
the corners in the water, otherwise the middle
would be too hard or the corners too soft to
stand well.

Almost every diflPerent sort of steel requires its
own peculiar tempering, and thus sometimes an
excellent steel, through not being properly mani-
pulated in this respect, has been condemned by
smiths and miners. Afterwards, when the smiths
get into the way of tempering it, the same steel
might give great satisfaction to all parties.

The colours for tempering bits mostly vary
from straw to purple. The shades of brown give
excellent tempering for many kinds of rock.

The best degree of tempering depends as much
upon the condition and nature of the rock to be
bored as it does upon the character of the
steel; and smiths can secure considerable ad-
vantage by observing the results of different
temperings, as indicated by the blunted bits
from various sorts of ground. If the edges
blunt very much by wearing off round and
smooth, they may be tempered a little harder ;
but if they break and crack off very much — .
unless due to burning the steel, or the fault
of holding the bit still in hardening — they may
be tempered a little softer to advantage.

Oil-tempering is not often used for borers,

54 MINING TOOLS.

but it is advantageous when haying to deal
with some extremely hard and brittle rocks.
The bit is first hardened by sudden cooling in
water. The hardness thus produced is next
tempered by slow re-heatiog while smeared
with oil, until it flameSy whereupon it is finally
cooled by immersion. When moistened over
with oil, and cooled in the same fluid, the bits
are believed to acquire greater elasticity and
toughness.

As steel is known to suffer injury by heating for
frequent hardening and tempering, it is sometimes
beneficial to avoid high hardening and subsequent
tempering, by giving the steel its final degree
of hardness direct by the first cooling. To do
this, instead of heating the steel red hot at random,
as in the case of high hardening, it must be heated
to a particular degree for each stage of hardness
required, and cooled at that temperature, by
which means all tempering by draicing down is
avoided, and the required amount of hardness is
obtained by the first cooling.

Heating the steel to the exact temperature is
the main point to be secured. This has been
referred to in the Introduction. A cheap and
enduring alloy, melting at the proper temperature
for this purpose, would be extremely useful for
heating for the operation.

BORERS. 55

Unfair blows, and bad turning when a borer is
in use, will spoil bits almost as quickly as any-
thing. The force of the blows for boring to the
best advantage depends chiefly on the nature of
the ground and the size of the bit. As a rule, in
having to encounter very dense, sharp rock, the
borer will not bear beating as heavily as in more
impressible yet tougher rock, such as some sorts of
killas and hornblende. Generally speaking, heavy
blows are not desirable, " smart blows and plenty
of 'em " being preferable, and intelligent miners
always notice what strength of blow answers
best.

Nearly as much depends on the turning of
borers ; and if this is not done well, so as to keep
the hole round and true, the bit suffers undue
strains, and soon gets impaired.

Under these circumstances, it is a matter of no
surprise that the same bit will go through much
more groimd with some men than with others.

Cast- steel should never be heated above bright
cherry red. In all particular cases it should be
worked at a dull red if possible. In fact, the
lowest he^t at which all kinds of steel can possibly
be worked is always the best heat.

Overheated steel is apt to fly or crack in hard-
ening. Its fineness of structure, elasticity, and
i^esiveness are also greatly injured, and this

56 MINING TOOLS.

injury increases with the intensity and frequency
of overheating.

Although overheated or burnt borers do get
sent underground, they are of poor use there, and
are very soon sent back again. Further, they
never can be of any good until the burnt part is
broken or cut oflP. Good steel is often blamed
from neglect in this direction ; and when mine
managers and agents give a little attention to the
smith's shop, now and then taking a borer out of
the fire, and properly reprehending any cases of
having in the fire too many tools to attend to,
or of some being overheated, the results are
surprisingly modified for the better.

In forging steel, very heavy striking should
be avoided, because it is known to impair the
texture of the steel ; and hence, in drawing out
borer bits on the anvil, this should be borne in
mind.

Ordinary bore-holes for blasting range mostly
from 1^ to 1^ inch diameter for single-hand bor-
ing, and from 1| to about 2J inches diameter for
double-hand boring.

A smith and striker will usually sharpen and
temper from thirty to forty-five medium size
single-hand borers per hour, according to how
much they are blunted or broken, or from twenty
to forty medium size double-hand borers in the

BORERS. 57

same time. These will be hardened in water, and
the colour brought up once in tempering.

By use in hard ground, borers shorten rapidly.
In striking borers this shortening goes on at both
the bit and striking ends. The wear at the bit
end is governed by the quality of the steel, sharp-
ening and tempering, and the nature of the rock
to be bored, as well as the character of the strik-
ing. The wear of the striking end also depends
upon the quality and condition of the metal of
which it is formed, and the character of the strik-
ing and the rock.

Wrought-iron borers, when not steeled on the
striking end, wear away very fast— especially so
with poor and badly-welded or " hollow '* iron.

Good cast- steel borers stand decidedly better ;
but they should always be well annealed on the
striking end. Should the steel, however, be rash,
it will wear down quickly, even with the best
annealing, and pieces four or five inches long will
often spall off the side of the borer at the striking
end.*

In very hard ground some steel will do good
service at the bit end, but stand very indifferently
at the striking end, and this is a consideration

♦ Borers which have been some time in use are considered
to transmit the hlow better than new ones. This applies mainly
to borers with iron stocks, the structure of which becomes coA"*
spicuously changed by repeated concussion.

d3

58 MINING TOOLS.

which should be attended to in selecting borer-
steel. If new borers be marked in the middle
with a centre-punch, and their lengths measured,
the rate of wear and tear of both ends can be
ascertained at intervals, under different conditions.

The writer found, from carefully-noted results,
that some sorts of steel wasted away from two to
three times faster on the striking end than on the
bit end; and that in the same kind of ground
one sort of steel stood three times the work of
another, and, notwithstanding the extra striking
to which it was thus submitted, the striking ends
did not wear down any faster, although both sorts
were sharpened, tempered, and annealed to the
best advantage.* The great quantity of steel
used in British mines is ample reason for noticing
this subject, and mine agents would often derive
useful information by recording such results for
themselves. It would invariably inculcate the
principle that the use of inferior steel is attended
mth loss and disadvantage, and that careful sharpen-
ing and tempering pays best in the long-run.

It is almost a cruelty to provide bad steel for
miners, or to make them receive their tools from
the hands of an incompetent smith; and when
they have to pay for the steel wasted, it is proper

* Steel thimbles, with thick tops for striking on, are sometimes
driven on the borers to keep them from wearing on the striking
end.

BORERS. 59

for masters to see that their earnings are not
epitomized by the expense and waste of time con-
sequent upon carelessness on these points.

The bits we have noticed are the commonest
forms in use, and for most cases of ordinary hand-
boring they are unexcelled. Other forms are
in use, particularly in some foreign mining dis-
tricts.

Fig. 11 represents the " swallow-tail " bit. It
is rather weak, and requires to be used with care
in very compact rock. In some sorts of ground
it cuts rather dead, but it makes a good hole, as
the width of the corners contributes to removing
any ruggedness from the sides. The " club " bit.
Fig. 12, has two cutting edges crossing each
other at right angles, so that the impact of the
blow is divided over more cutting edge. This is
an advantage in some mild and some hard rocks,
which would require light striking on a single
edge. Fig. 13 represents the " nicker '* bit,
having a cross edge at one corner for cutting
the circumference of the hole, and keeping it
round.

All of these bits are troublesome to sharpen
when they break, and it is difficult to temper
them equally.

Some bits, instead of being curved outwards
or bowed, as in Fig. 3, are curved inwards —

60 MmiNG TOOLS.

crescent- like — ^but the comers are necessarily
very weak.

Revolving borers are generally turned direct,
either by a lever, crank, wheel, gearing, or some
such contrivance.

Fig. 14 represents a revolving bit, sometimes
used for hand-boring in coal for "benching-down,"
either by explosives or by hydraulic benching-
down machines, instead of wedging. The bit
fits into the end of a mandrel, sometimes made
hollow, and out of a piece of wrought-iron gas-
pipe.

When used for making holes to receive bench-
ing -down machines, a fine thread is in some
instances cut around the outside of the mandrel,
which passes through a nut fixed in an upright
prop, and the prop is secured firmly between the
floor and roof by end screws or wedges. Upon
turning the handle, the nut forces the mandrel
and bit to advance, and thus the borer is self-
feeding. A worm is sometimes coiled around the
mandrel to clear out the boring dust.

We shall conclude this chapter by noticing some
boring bits used for sinking artesian wells, or
deep exploratory bore-holes. The bits are usually
fastened by a key, or screw joint, to the tail of
the rope or rods which descend into the hole.

Fig. 15 shows a " bow " bit, which is exten-

BOREKS. 61

sively used. Sometimes the edge is formed as at
a, and then it is called a " V " bit.

Fig. 16 is a double nicker bit, with a straight
edge, and is a very serviceable tool. In some
instances only one corner has a nicker, and its
width is equal to about half the width of the bit.
It is bent, to fit the circular form of the hole.
This is called a " T " bit.

Figs. 17 and 18 represent bits which present a
good deal of cutting edge, but are difficult to re-
sharpen when broken. They both answer very
well for fair ground. The " S " bit cuts a very
true hole. For boring holes of large diameter,
instead of using one large bit, it is better to use
separate bits of a convenient size for sharpening,
and all made to screw firmly into one iron block.

In some instances the bits are arranged around
a cylinder for the purpose of cutting " cores," as
shown in Fig. 19.

All these are percussion borers, and they gene-
rally act by the force of gravity.

For penetrating soft ground, such as clay,
revolving borers are preferred. One of these is
represented by Fig. 20, which is an " auger
shell " for scooping up the clay. In some cases
there is a valve inside, opening upwards, for
keeping the stuff from falling out when it is
being drawn up.

62 MINING TOOLS.

For bormg in hard clay, or loam, the " nose "
of the bit is shaped similar to the dotted lines,
and there is a narrow slit all up the side of the
shell. The stiffer the clay the wider the slit may
be. Sometimes a similar tool, forming half a
cylinder, like a carpenter's barrel auger, is used
in like manner.

Figs. 21 and 22 show other tools used for
penetrating stiflf clays. Fig. 21 — the " worm
auger'* — ^is occasionally used for loosening the
stuff in bore-holes.

The patterns of borers employed in well-sink-
ing and trial borings are very multifarious, espe-
cially those used in soft ground.

HAMMEES, SLEDGES, &c.

This class of tool is of indispensable service, be-
cause it admits of storing wp power, that it may be,
with convenience, given out abruptly in the form of
a blow, which is useful for the purpose of striking.
The striking part of the tool (called the " head ")
is proportionately massive, and for most purposes
made of metal. It is usually furnished with an
" eye " for receiving a wooden " handle,*' " stick/'
or "helve." When such a tool is made with a
metal head, and is intended to be used with one
hand, it is called a " hammer.'' When intended to
be used by both hands, it is called a "sledge."*
Miners' hammers and sledges are of various forms
and dimensions. A variety of patterns (as used
in various mining districts) are illustrated. Fig.
23, called the " bully " pattern, is a very frequent
form. Fig. 24 is the " block," Fig. 25 is the
" pointing," Fig. 26 is the " bloat," and Fig. 27
the " plug " pattern. The striking face is called

* Hammers and sledges are sometimes called ** mallets," but
the name properly refers to wooden-headed tools.

64 MINING TOOLS.

the " pane," and it has generally a little convexity
when new to allow for its wearing.

The shape of the " head " is sometimes modified
by varying its width, as in Fig. 28, which is
termed a "broad bully," and Fig. 29, which is
termed a "narrow bully." Besides this, the
"head" is sometimes curved, as in Fig. 24, in
which case it is said to " sweep."

Occasionally the " head " is formed with the
side of the " eye," extended to form " cheeks," as
at fl. Fig. 30, which represents a "bloat" head
cheeked.

The " eye " is commonly oval, as in Fig. 23,
but sometimes round, as in Fig. 26, and occa-
sionally it is square, or rectangular, as in Fig. 24 ;
but it is varied often in the same pattern. The
patterns described are drawn to represent sledges,
but the same shapes are used for hammers, and the
proportionate length of the head is often varied
from that shown in both hammers and sledges.
These patterns are used for boring, and for driv-
ing wedges and other tools to be again noticed.
Fig. 33 shows the "dally" hammer, sometimes
made with a circular or cheese-shaped head, and
sometimes with four faces, or six (as shown), or
more. This hammer is used for single-hand bor-
ing, and so is the cube hammer, shown by Fig.
34. The St. Just miners are, perhaps, unexcelled

HAMMERS, SLEDGES, ETC. 65

for expert single-hand boring, and they use a
hammer shown by Fig. 35, which is a long bloat-
head with a little sweep. There is not usually
any steel in the panes. In some other parts of
Cornwall, very short, broad bully-heads are used,
with the panes sharply chamfered down to about
the size of a halfpenny, so that with a false blow
the sledge glances sideways instead of striking
the individual who turns the borer. These are
called " cat's-head " hammers or sledges, and
Fig. 31 represents a sledge of the kind. A
miner's boriijg mallet is illustrated by Fig. 32.
The head is usually made of a block of elm.

Hammers for single-hand boring range from
2^1b8. to 41bs. weight. Some miners like them
lighter than others, and much, in this respect,
depends on the nature of the work. For boring
dotcnwards, as in under-hand " stoping," heavier
hammers can be used than for horizontal or up-
ward boring.

Sledges used for double-hand boring (i,e. in
the case of one person striking the borer while
another turns it) vary in weight in the " head "
from 41bs. to lOlbs. for the same reasons as do
hammers. A very convenient weight for a boring
sledge-head is 71bs. or 81bs.

The handles of boring hammers are from 6 to
18 inches long ; but in boring sledges the handles

66 MINING TOOLS.

range from 18 to 30 inches long, common lengths
being 24, 26, and 28 inches.

Sledges used for driving wedges are almost
identical with boring sledges, and very often
the same one is used for both purposes. Wedge
or gad driving often injures sledges more than
boring, so that some miners like to use a par-
ticular sledge for each purpose. In some col-
lieries a special kind of sledge is used for wedging
down coal after holing. It is commonly a point-
ing sledge, with a head 10 to 15 inches long, by
from 1 J to 2J inches square in the thickest part,
tapered to about 1| or 1 J inch at the panes, with
the angles taken off by a chamfer gradually in-
creasing from the eye to form an octagon shape
at the panes. The weight of the head varies
from 41bs. to lOlbs. ; a very serviceable weight
being 81bs., with a head 12 inches long by
2 J inches square over the eye, tapering to 1^-
inch octagon panes.

It will be noticed that most of the hammers
illustrated have two striking ** stumps," with
panes like each other. Miners are partial to this
form, because it balances well in the hand.

Sledges are frequently required for breaking
up lumps, and as this work is very rough usage
for a sledge, there is often one of a particular
form used for the purpose, and called a " lump

HAMMEES, SLEDGES, ETC. 67

sledge." The weight of the head is from lOlbs.
to 201bs. It has usually egg-ended panes, but
varies in shape. Fig. 36 shows a lump sledge
used in some metalliferous mines.

Fig. 37 shows a " cobbing hammer " used for
dressing ores by hand. The head varies from
14 to 18 inches long, and from 21bs. to 4|lbs.
weight. Fig. 38 represents a " bucking iron "
with the stirrup (to receive the handle) welded
on the back of the striking-plate. This is used
for hand-crushing in dressing ores. Fig. 39
represents another bucking iron, in which the
handle is secured in the stirrup by a wooden
wedge driven on the back of the striking-plate.
The adoption of rollers and other crushing
machinery is gradually dispensing with the use
of these tools.

The " spalling hammer *' is used for breaking
up lumps of orey mineral for sorting before crush-
ing and stamping. The head weighs generally
about 21bs. or 31bs., according to the class of work
to be done. It is shaped similarly to the point-
ing pattern, Fig. 25, but with spherical ends —
almost identical with the common road-metalling
hammer — and furnished with a handle about 26
to 30 inches long. Spalling hammers are not in-
tended for cleaning ore fit for market, as are
cobbing hammers.

68 MINING TOOLS.

Sledges are often made at the mines where
they are used. The head then consists of
wrought-iron with steel panes. The eye is
generally punched hot, out of a short square
bar of iron of suitable size, and a drift is
worked in to keep the eye in shape while the
sledge is being forged.

Bar-iron being generally manufactured by roll-
ing, at a welding heat, a pile of separate pieces
of iron, has often a laminated or leafy structure,
due to imperfect welding in its manufacture,
which can be detected on inspection. Fig. 40
shows this laminated feature as it would appear
in the section of a bar.

When sledges have to be made out of such
a bar, the eye is not as strong if punched with
the laminae, according to Fig. 41, as if punched
across, as in Fig. 42. If sledges are to stand
well, it is important to punch the eye across
the laminae; but many smiths overlook this
point, and sledges punched the other way are
constantly splitting in use. Bully-heads are often
forged as follows : —

A bar of iron, say 2 inches square and 13 inches
long, is cut off. This will make two 81b. sledges.
One set of corners is chamfered down in the
cutting-off heat, as shown by Fig. 43. The eye,
a, is next punched, and then h, and the sledges

HAMMERS, SLEDGES, ETC. 69

are divided by a clift, one set of corners being
chamfered down, as shown by dotted lines, all in
the same heat which was drawn for punching b.
Afterwards the other sets of corners are similarly
chamfered down by new heats, and both sledges
are ready for "steeling/' For this purpose is
used a flat bar of good blister or shear steel of
about 2 inches wide by f inch thick. One end is
heated to redness, and after about 2 inches have
been nearly severed with a clift, as in Fig. 44, it
is bent, and two corners hammered down on the
anvil, as in Fig. 45. Then, by bending it the
opposite way, the two other corners are ham-
mered down similarly, as in Fig. 46, where it
assumes an eight-square outline, and forms a
pane for the sledge, attached to the bar by only a
slender neck. The steel pane is next welded on.
This is done by heating the steel and one end of
the sledge separately. When a welding heat is
drawn — sand having been used to form a glaze —
the sledge is rapidly placed on the anvil, with the
heated end uppermost, and the hot steel pane
being quickly laid on, with the sides correspond-
ing with the iron part, as in Fig. 47, a few light
hammer blows on the surface of the steel pane
weld it firmly to the iron, and by twisting the
steel bar it breaks ofi" at the narrow neck, leaving
the pane properly attached.

70 MINING TOOLS.

The chamfers are then dressed with a hammer,
and after the opposite face has been treated simi-
larly, the sledge is hardened by heating both faces
to redness, and plunging it into cold water until
quite chiUed, upon which it is finished. Although
the faces are not tempered at all, they are often
found to be too soft, and this arises from the
violent ebullition which the hot sledge produces
when immersed, and which prevents the water
from coming into close contact with the steel, so
that it is cooled too slowly to be suf&ciently hard.
If streams of cold water are made to play with
some force against the hot panes, they are always
found to be well hardened.

When these sledges are made well, out of good
iron, they stand a great deal of wear, and pos-
sess the advantage of being easily re-steeled
when the panes are worn out. If, however, they
are defective in quality, or workmanship, they are
very liable to break by splitting, or giving way
across the eye. A smith and two strikers will
commonly forge eight 71b. bully sledges per day,
and turn them out of hand in a workmanlike
manner. This is a fair day's work, although
some smiths, after getting well used to the work,
can do ten. The cost may be arrived at as
follows : —

HAMMERS, SLEDGES, ETC. 71

1 Smith at 5s =60 pence.

2 Strikers at 2*. 6^. (58,) =60 „

Labour 120 pence.

50lbs. iron, say . . , , . 60 pence.
81bs. steel, say . . . , w 82

82

»»

Total 202 pence.

Weight of sledges 8 X 7 = 66 lbs.

r«, 202

Then —^ = 3*60 pence per lb., or nearly 3|rf.

The cost of coal, wear and tear of tools, &c., would amount to a
trifle, say ^d, to 1^. per lb., extra.

Similar sledges can be bought ready-made by
the cwt. at about the same rate ; but they do not,
as a rule^ stand as much work as home-made
sledges, and it is sometimes necessary to make
sledges at the mine in order to fill up the smith's
time. A smith and striker can re-steel about
twelve of these sledges (twenty-four panes) per
day. Excellent solid cast-steel sledges are now
procurable from steel manufacturers at 9d. per lb.
for sizes above Gibs, weight, and increasing to
la. per lb. for smaller sizes. Occasionally these
sledges break by cracking, after which they can-
not be repaired ; but if they are well made, and
used carefuUy, they are remarkably durable, and
are becoming very favourite amongst some miners,
many of whom claim that they give a " smarter "
and more effective blow than steeled iron sledges.

PICKS.

The pick is notably a miner's implement. Ir
different districts it is called either a "mandrel,"
"pike," "slitter," "mattock," or "hack."*

Fig. 48 shows the common pick. The head is
usually made of wrought-iron with steel at the
" tips," fl, a, h, b, which form the wearing parts.
An eye is formed at e, to receive the handle or
"helve," which is secured by a wedge (shaded
dark), and the sides of the eye are spread out to
form " cheeks," as at/. About half of the head, viz.,
/, a, or /, b, is occasionally termed a "shank," or
" stem." The " helve " is ordinarily made of ash ;
and the part g, formed to suit the eye, is called
the "feather," while h is called the " haft," which
is made of a suitable size for holding in the hands,
and is usually oval in shape. There are many
other patterns of picks to be noticed presently.

The action of a pick is very similar to that of a
sledge, but the tools are of different utility. While

* Tliis tool is said to be represented on Egyptian monuments
of great antiquity.

PICKS. 73

the akdge conveys impetus for driving other im-
plements which make the impression, the pick
does the twofold work of supplying the blow and
making the impression also. The pick-head is
mounted on a helve similarly to a sledge, but the
stems of a pick are sharpened out at the tips, to
penetrate, chip, or pulverize the mineral sub-
stance against which the tool is directed.

The tips of a pick are generally sharpened to a
point by a square taper, or to a chisel-edge; so
that the tapering extremities possess the property
of a wedge, which is very advantageous in work-
ing jointy, scaly, or fissured rock, and equally
serviceable for excavating more yielding kinds of
ground, because the force of each blow expends
itself in making the tip penetrate the ground,
which is thereby loosened or disturbed all around.
Another feature which affords most substantial
value to the pick is the facility it offers for being
used as a bent lever. When once entered into
any sort of ground, the pick forms its own ful-
crum, and acts like a crowbar, by prizing on the
helve, so that it offers the most convenient oppor-
tunity for levering out the surrounding ground at
every stroke. When one tip of a pick has entered
in hard ground, the miner often assists the prizing
by pressing with one foot, or hand, against the other
tip, thereby diminishing the strain upon the helve.

£

74 MINING TOOLS.

The last use to which a pick is applied, which we
shall notice, is that of a scraper, which is occa-
sionally required in narrow cuts for dragging out
the stuff loosened by working.

In Fig. 48 the head of the pick is curved
slightly. When this is the case, it is said to
" sweep.'* Picks, as Fig. 60, having straight
tips converging to the eye, instead of being
curved, are said to be " elbowed " or " anchored."

In some picks there is no curvature, and then
the head is said to be " straight," as in Fig. 50.

For under-hand work, a pick having a little
sweep is preferred, because, as miners say, it
"falls" into its work better than a straight
head ; but for over-hand or long-reaching work a
straight-headed pick is generally chosen, or one
having but very slight sweep.

Straight-headed picks assist the reach, and are
best for getting into comer work.

As in the case of sledges, the weights of pick-
heads vary according to the preferences of the
users, and the sort of work to be performed.
From 21b8. to 81bs. are the common extremes.
When required chiefly for downward cutting,
heavier picks are used than for horizontal or
upward work ; and it is usual to employ heavier
picks in hard groimd than in soft.

The stems are commonly rectangular in cross

PICKS. 75

section — the angles being sometimes chamfered
down — and they are from ^ inch to 1 j inch thick
near the eye, according to the shape, strength,
and weight required. Very commonly the stems
are square in section, but often they are flattened
sideways to make them deeper in the direction
of the helve, as in Fig. 63. This gives them
greater strength for prizing. Fig. 49 represents
a form of pick in very common use in iron mines.
It is forged out of l|-inch square iron, and
weighs about 4jlbs. when new. A similar pick,
largely used for the same purpose, is forged out
of 1-inch square iron, and weighs SJlbs. For
working loose or soft iron ore, picks of the same
shape made out of 1-inch square iron, and weigh-
ing 31bs., are often preferred.

The helves in these picks are generally from
24 to 33 inches long. The length varies accord-
ing to the nature of the work and user's taste ; it
being farther influenced in some cases by the size
of the lode or deposit to be worked.

Fig. 50 represents a coal pick in common use
in the Gloucestershire and Somerset collieries for
"holing*' and "cutting" purposes * The head is

* The operation of under-cutting the coal, so that it may
afterwarda fall, or be wedged or blasted down, is called "hol-
ing," "benching," " kirving," or " under-going.*' The long
gash, jad, or jud, cut for this purpose parallel to the plane of the
seam does not sometimes exceed 8 or 9 inches in width at the

e2

76 MINING TOOLS.

double-cheeked, and weighs about 2^1b8. or 2Jlbs.
A common length for the helve is 30 inches.

Fig. 51 shows the pick commonly used in the
same districts for " dead work " or " deading."
The head weighs about 41bs. or 4Jlbs. Fig. 52
represents a very similar form of pick, used for
coal-cutting in the Bedminster part of the Bristol
coal-field. The head weighs 2ilbs., and the
helve is only 25 inches long.

Fig. 53 represents a holing pick slightly
sweeped, as used in the Forest of Dean —
weight about 25lbs. ; and Fig. 54 represents a
cutting or " cut-off " pick — ^used in the same
place — the head being somewhat heavier.

Fig. 55 represents the form of holing pick in
common use at the collieries of South Wales.
The head weighs about 2Jlbs. ; sometimes 21b.
heads are used. At other times two sizes are used,
— largey with heads about 31bs., and smally with
heads about lib. less. When a long reach is
required, the helve is 34 or 36 inches long.
28 and 30 inches are lengths frequently adopted.
Fig. 56 represents the cutting pick commonly

front or " foreside," and it may penetrate to about 3 feet in-
wards, gradually narrowing. It is generally made near the
JlooVy but its position depends mainly on the nature of the de-
posits — ^being often cut with advantage where a layer of soft
coaly or other substance occurs in or adjoins the seam. See
p. 85— holing and cutting picks.

PICKS. 77

used in the same collieries. It is sometimes the
same weight as the holing pick, but often a little
heavier — 31b. head. The stems, as a rule, taper
regularly from eye to tip.* After holing and
cutting, a somewhat stronger pick — about 41b.
head — called a "stripping mandrel," is employed,
in some instances, for " pulling down " the coal.
A form of " rock pick " for dead work, frequently
used in the South Wales coal-fields, closely re-
sembles Fig. 48, the head being about 61bs.
weight. Another form resembles Fig. 49, with
a 4 Jib. head. " Bottom picks " are also used in
the same locality for cutting the floors or thills of
coal seams. These are often shaped like Fig. 49,
and sometimes like Fig. 57, with 51b. or 61b.
heads ; but when the bottom is not very hard,
lighter heads are used.

Fig. 58 represents a holing pick, with about a
21b. head, used in Flintshire. It has a sweep
head, and often chisel tips. The cutting pick is
slightly heavier, and has points, but is of the
same pattern with less sweep. Fig. 59 repre-
sents a " driving pick " for dead work, having
about a 31b. head, used in the same collieries.
It is tqp'Bwee'pei only.

Holing and cutting picks, extensively em-

* In this district new heads for cutting and holing picks often
measure 20 inches long. The stems are very thin and slender*

78 MINING TOOLS.

ployed in the North of England collieries, are
represented by Figs. 60 and 61. The heads
weigh from 2Jlbs. to 31bs., and have very small
cheeks. Fig. 60 is more elbow-anchored than
Fig. 61. Fig. 62 represents a " driving " or
"stone" pick, elbowed in character with the
former ones, and used for dead work. The angles
are not always chamfered, and the head weighs
about 4Jlbs. or 61bs. In Northumberland lead-
mines a pick represented by Fig. 63 is used. The
head weighs about SJlbs.

Were we to omit reference to the " poll-pick,"
we should overlook one of the most valuable of
the British miner's tools.

Fig. 64 represents the poll-pick commonly used
in Cornwall. It has one stem about 12 inches long,
from the end of the eye, and one stump about 3
inches long to form the "poU." The eye is about
2^ inches long. When forged out of l|-inch
square iron — the thickest part of the stem — the
head weighs about 41bs., and is a favourite size
for hard ground. The face of the poll is steeled
like a sledge, to form a pane, so that it can be
used for striking blows. 26 to 28 inches is a
common length for the helve, which is slightly
feathered on one side only, and curved in the haft.

The head is sometimes quite straight. The
poll-pick has the " much-in-little " recommenda-

PICKS. 79

tion. It has the properties of the pick, and, in
addition, it can be used as a sledge to drive
in wedges, &c., thus avoiding the necessity of
laying it aside and taking up a sledge for the
purpose ; but more than this, it can be used as a
wedge itself, and, by striking it on the poll end,
it performs very useful service in this respect,
although the eye is liable to burst if thus tried
too severely.

With these points in view, it is easy to under-
stand why the poll-pick should be a favourite
tool with many miners, and any one need only use
it for a bare month or two to comprehend how
greatly does a miner accustomed to its - use feel
the loss when deprived of it by any circumstance.
Sometimes, for soft ground, the stem is 18 inches
long, and only | of an inch square in the stoutest
place.

Poll-picks are used in several parts of Great
Britain. Pig. 65 represents a rather stumpy
form used in some hard ground by Derbyshire
lead miners. The head is about S^lbs. weight.

Fig. 66 represents a poll-pick used by Flint-
shire lead miners.

In prizing or levering a pick, strain is thrown on
the helve in the eye, thereby inducing a tendency
to " wince," by the yielding of the feathered part,
as shown in section by Fig. 67.

80 MINING TOOLS.

Now the bearing surface at each end of the
"eye" is usually rather short and narrow, but
it should be long and wide to best counteract
wincing. The keener the edges of the helve
feather are made, the more liable it is to wince,
or to split the eye.

Prevention of wincing is aimed at by wedging
the helve in the eye, so as to make it press
very tightly against the cheeks and sides. This
makes the helve tight ; but it sometimes causes
the eye to split, so that the proper amount of
wedging to stop at is not always easily deter-
mined.

The mischief of wincing can be largely avoided
by increasing the end bearing surface of the eye ;
for which purpose the eye should not feather very
keenly, as in Fig. 68, but should rather have the
ends rounded, as in Fig. 69, and the ends of the
eye should be made as deep as possible in the
direction of the helve, in order to give the
feather, when prizing, fulcrum as far as possible
from the neutral axis of the head. There is
generally not sufficient regard given to this
matter. We have found it an advantage, for
picks exposed to severe wincing strain, to weld
two corbel bits at the ends of the eye, as shaded
dark on Fig. 70.

The Forest of Dean miners have a device to

PICKS. 81

prevent wincing which is applied to some of
their tools, and illustrated by Fig. 71, which
they call a " strap-mattock," and Fig. 72, which
they call a "dresser." Fig. 71 is a double-
stemmed* pick, and Fig. 72 is a poll-pick which
is very useful for repairing roads. Both are used
in collieries for dead- work purposes.

The plan consists in using two iron " straps,"
— one being represented quarter-size by Fig. 73,
— ^which are put in the ends of the eye, with the
tee-piece clipping the top of the pick. The helve
is properly fitted, and a long wedge — shown at ff.
Fig. 71 — is driven between the straps to force
them tightly against the ends of the eye, and to
wedge the helve at the same time. This being
done, the straps are bent to the shape of the
helve feather, and riveted firmly to it by two
rivets passing through the whole.

The tee-pieces, clipping the top of the pick, tend
materially to prevent wincing, and if some sort
of stud on the strap were contrived to clip under
the pick also, it would be better still.

Occasionally the stems of picks are made much
longer than any of those illustrated. Sometimes
long heads, 2 to 3 feet over all, are useful for
sinking imder the snore or windhore. They offer

* These are often confusedly called double-A^(2?eJ picks.

e3

82 MINING TOOLS.

a good purchase for levering, without prizing
greatly on the helve.

In loose ground, light stems, each as much as
18 inches long, are at certain times used.

Continental miners have very diversified forms
of picks. Figs. 74, 75, and 79 are single-stem
picks, which belong to a very general class used
in some collieries.* Figs. 76, 77, and 78 belong
to the poll-pick class, which is very common in
metalliferous mines.

Our continental friends give much more heed,
in the construction of their picks, to the pre-
vention of wincing than is manifested in this
country.

Figs. 74, 75, 76, 78, and 79 give a large and
long bearing surface for the helve in the eye.
Sometimes the eye is lightened by cutting out the
sides, as in dotted lines Fig. 74. Fig. 77, though
not afibrding a long bearing for the helve while
prizing, nevertheless offers a broad, flat surface at
the ends on account of the eye forming a wide
rectangle. Very slight wedging of the helve is
suflScient for either of these picks.

The sizes of picks vary in foreign countries
just as they do here. A fair variety was shown
at the late Paris Exhibition. Some of them in

♦ A single-stem pick of this class— 74 — is used in our
anthracite collieries.

PIC!KS. 83

handling felt rather clumsy, according to British
notions, while others evidently possessed great
handiness. Although continental mining tools,
on the whole, cannot be considered superior
to those used in this country, it is probable we
may derive a few good hints from them, espe-
cially in the construction of pick-eyes, which are
often the most faulty portions of mining picks.

Fig. 78 is often made without the poll. The
pick illustrated by Fig. 80 is a very favourite tool
with Belgian colliers, who call it a " rivelaine.'*
It is light for using — in some cases not exceeding
2ilbs., including helve. The head (which is
either sweeped or straight) and part of the
handle are formed of one piece of flat iron, and
it is furnished with two ears or straps, between
which a straight, round handle is fixe3. The
tips are of steel, as usual.

Fig. 81 represents a common form of pick
used in Saxony, the single- stem head being
from Slbs. to 41bs. weight. Fig. 82 is a stumpy
poll-pick, with a 61b. head, used also for working
veins in Saxony. Sometimes it is small, for
single-hand use, with only 2Jlb. head, as in
Fig. 83.

Fig. 84 is a form of " stone pick " much used
in Brazil and other countries. A very similar
tool, known as a " scabbing pick," is often used

84 MiyrsG tools.

in quarries for scabbing over the surface of lar<»e
blocks of stone (to partly reduce irregularities)
before they are sent to the stone dressers. A
miner's " twibill " is a similar pick, with an eye
generally rectangular. Fig. 85 is a form of pick-
head sometimes used in Germany. Figs. 86 and 87
represent the forms of "Australian " or " nugget "
picks, used in gold-mining districts, the weight
of the heads varying from If lbs. to 3Jlbs.

We understand that American mining picks
are closely akin to those used in Great Britain,
and some of them are similar to the single-stem
and poll-picks used on the Continent. Fig. 88
shows a poll-pick used in some American iron
mines, where it is called a " hammer-pick."

The tips of picks are sharpened on an anvil to
the required form. Most commonly they are
drawn out to a point like a four-sided pyramid,
and this is the best form for hard or crisp ground.
But when required for chipping the ground, or
for working tough ground, a chisel tip is more
suitable. Some kinds of holing ground are rather
binding, so that a chisel tip clears it out better
than a point, after the pick has entered. For
this reason, chisel tips j-inch wide are used for
working parts of the so-called " soap " vein in
Monmouthshire. When the tips taper gradually,
they are spoken of as being " slim ; *^ but when

PICKS. 86

they taper quickly, they are said to be "bluff."
The rate of taper is regulated by the following
considerations, viz. : the strength required, the
nature of the tcork to be performed, and, some-
times, the length of the head. The bluffer the
tips, the stronger they are ; but very stumpy tips
will not always cut the ground well, or penetrate
it sufficiently. Coal picks, used for holing and
cutting, are often required to work in a narrow
slit or cut, to deepen or prolong it. Reference to
Fig. 89 will explain why, under such circum-
stances, the tips must be drawn out slim,
because it is necessary for the point to " catch **
in the corner of the cut, and if made bluffer, as in
Fig. 90, the head cannot be turned sufficiently
oblique to enable the point to touch the side at
aU, and so with such a pick, by losing its catch,
the sides of the cut would soon close together
and meet, or "cut out.'* It will be clearly
seen that the shorter the pick-head the more
obliquely it can be turned in a narrow cut, and
the bluffer the tips may be used without losing
the catch.

Cutting picks are used for cutting or shearing
off the coal at the sides of the stall or face, so as
to part the seam on each side, and facilitate the
bringing down of the coal between the cuts.
These "side cuts " are generally vertical, and are

86 MINING TOOLS.

made as narrow as possible, to avoid wasting the
coal.

Some good colliers will work in cuts from 2
to 3 feet deep, and not exceeding 5 to 8 inches
wide at the front, so dexterously, that the stand-
ing side, as the face advances, will form a large
surface with evenness resembling a good brick wall,
and covered with marks of the pick-point, not
unlike the track marks of circular-saw teeth.

The tips are tempered in the same way as
borers — generally to a straw colour, or a very
light blue on the extremity — by first hardening
and then reducing or tempering with the heat
remaining behind the extremity.

This is the right principle of tempering, because
it leaves the hardest parts nearest the extremity.
When picks are not blunted very much before
they are sent to be sharpened (as is usually the
case with coal picks), one smith and a boy can
sharpen and temper in the ordinary way about
70 to 100 tips per hour ; 120 per hour is viewed
as brisk work. Mr. J. T. Green, manager of the
Tredegar Collieries, informs us that a smith and
a boy can sharpen 150 points of their picks per
hour in the usual way. Two or three points or
tips are generally heated in the fire together for
following in succession. Some dead-work picks,
and picks used in metalliferous mining, are

PICKS. 87

commonly blunted much more than coal picks,
so that they take a longer time to sharpen, and
often require to be drawn out a little with the
striker's sledge. In this case, 40 to 60 tips per
hour are as many as one smith, assisted by a
striker, can sharpen and temper.

Picks are ordinarily made at the mine. One
method will be understood from the following
description, which, for convenience, will refer to
heads weighing about 4Jlbs,, a very useful size
for hard ground. A piece of l|-inch square bar
iron, about 14 inches long, is cut off. The middle
part is then heated, and "upset" — ^by striking
the bar endwise — until it forms a swell about 1^
inch square where the eye is to be made. A gash
is next cut through the middle of the swell, with
a kind of clift, after which the bar resembles
Fig. 91. A " drift " of the proper shape and size
is then worked in, to form the eye, as shown by
Fig. 92, and the sides of the eye are stretched
out, by hammering, to form cheeks of any de-
sired shape. When this is finished, each end
of the bar is split, as shown by Fig. 93, and a
tongue of steel (shaded dark on the figure) is
welded between, to form the wearing extremity.*

After this the stems are drawn out to the re-

♦ The remarks on borers for making " split welds " apply to
picks also.

88 MINING TOOLS.

quired taper, — being curved to any sweep, if so
required, — and the tips are next sharpened and
tempered to finish the head.* One smith and
striker will make, in the usual way, twelve of
these pick-heads per day, well finished and good,
the labour costing about 7d. per pick ; making
the cost of the head 1«. le/., or nearly Zd, per
lb. for labour and materials. If the pick-heads
are about 2jlbs. weight, and made out of |-inch
square iron, one smith, with a striker, will make
twenty per day — the cost for each head being,
for labour 4|fl^., and for materials 4fl?. ; in all, SJt^.f
Poll-picks are made by the same method, only
a poll is left for welding on a steel pane, instead
of drawing it out into a stem. They take about
the same time to make as double-stem picks of

* The eye should he punched across the laminsB of the har, as
in sledges.

t At some collieries in South "Wales, where hard steam
coal is worked, a smith and striker are paid 4». M, per set, not
including wedges, for lahour only for making colliers* tools.
The set consists of : —

1 Bottom pick . 6 Ihs \

1 Sledge . . . 74 „ }. 251bs.
6 Coal picks . . HJ „ ^

2 Wedges . . . 6 „

A good smith and striker, accustomed to the work, wiU
make two sets per day, excluding wedges ; and they consider
it good work to make 10 bottom picks per day, or 8 sledges, or
24 2Jlb. coal picks. By long practice, however, some will
exceed this. For some of the soft seams of North Somerset,
one or two coal picks with a sledge and wedge make up a set.

PICKS. 89

the same weight, and are commonly sold in Corn-
wall at from 3d, to id. per lb.

Another method of making picks — commonly
practised in Somerset and Gloucestershire — is by
welding together two flat bars, having the sides
of the eye flattened out in them as indicated by
Fig. 94. The welding is commenced for each
stem at the end of the eye, — ^which is formed on
a dresser, — and the tongues of steel, shaded dark
in the figure, are welded in before the stems are
drawn and tapered.

Picks made in this way stand excellently if
tcell welded, otherwise they are apt to split in use.
Sometimes a tongue of iron, or a " burr " from a
punching machine, is welded in each end of the
eye, to make it stronger ; and this also increases
the end bearing surface for the helve.

To make ten 4|lb. heads in this way, or
twelve 2^1b. heads, and turn them well out
of hand, is a fair day's work for an ordinary
smith and striker.* At some collieries they pay
for labour only, for making these heads, 9d,
each for the larger, and 7d. each for the smaller
ones.

After much use the stems of picks wear away
too short for further service, but when the eyes

* Oast-steel pick-heads are sold at from 9d, to Is. per lb.,
but are not much employed, on account of their liability to
break.

90 MINING TOOLS.

have stood well, they are generally considered too
valuable to throw aside, and the stems are length-
ened by first cutting off the old tips, and then
welding on new pieces of iron, putting in tongues
of steel between split welds at the extremities,
after which the whole is drawn out to the re-
quired taper, and shaped as in making new picks.

This is called " lining '* picks. A smith gene-
rally lines eighteen 2^1b. pick-heads — equal
to thirty-six stems — in one day, or fourteen
4Jlb. heads — equal to twenty-eight stems — ^in
the same time. This is about as much trouble as
making new picks, but the advantage connected
with lined picks is that the eyes have been proved
to stand well in work.

Figs. 95, 96, and 97, show some of the chief
forms of Messrs. Dahne and Thomas's patent
picks for holing and cutting coal, the particulars
of which were kindly furnished us by Mr. David
Thomas, Manager of the Rhymney Iron Com-
pany's Collieries. These picks have removable
tips, which can be readily changed. They are
very portable, weighing only from 6 to 7
ounces each, so that a miner can conveniently
carry several to work, and need never be short
of a sharp tool. This is equivalent to a great
saving of weight and of expense in furnishing
each miner's equipment. It cannot be expected

PICKS. 91

that these picks are as strong as the ordinary
ones ; but for work not requiring much prizing,
the contrivance possesses many recommendatory
poiuts.

Figs. 96 and 97 represent holing picks, with
gun-metal or malleable cast-iron stems and steel
tips, examples of the same patent.

A form of pick, patented in 1869 by Mr.
Charles Atwood Hardy, of Philadelphia, is illus-
trated by Fig. 98. The " bills," or stems, s, 8, are
in this case formed out of a distinct bar, and can
be readily removed and changed by slackening
the top screw-pin, p, in order that the bar may
be slipped out endwise. A simple key for turn-
ing fits into the square hole shown in the centre
of the pin, for screwing into the middle of a boss,
b, formed at the top of a malleable socket-piece,
b, r, hy which may be made of malleable cast-iron.
The spreading part of the helve is embraced by
the socket-piece — a rivet passing through the
combined legs or ears at h, h, as there shown in
dotted lines. The movable bar may be recessed,
leaving in the middle a stud, as shown in dotted
lines at x, matching a corresponding surface
formed within the socket-piece. The end steps
of the recessed part clip over the socket-piece at
r, r, where the shoulders are intended to retain
the bar firmly in its place.

92 MINING TOOLS,

Since the socket-piece and moyable bar of this
pick go together to make up the whole weight of
the head, it naturally occurs that for picks of a
given weight, this one would not be expected
to give blows quite as eflTective as the ordinary
pick, in which the head is made of one entire
piece of metal, so disposed as to be very direct
and eflfectual in its work; but the merits as
regards facility for renewal and transport are
of very material consequence in some instances,
and the firmness and simplicity of this particular
arrangement are highly spoken of.

In the specification diagrams, the legs or straps
of the socket-piece, which embrace the helve, are
seen to be so tapering as to converge towards the
extremities. Fig. 98 is drawn accordingly, but
it is not clear how the helve could be got into
the socket under these circumstances, since the
screw-boss prevents its being passed in at that
part, and the feather or spreading end of the
helve is too wide to pass between the straps in
the reverse way. But this is merely a matter
of detail, and is readily met by forming the
straps so as to taper or converge the opposite
way, corresponding with the dotted lines 2, z,
shown on one side only.

The designing of a really good pick, with
movable tips or stems, is an object which has

PICKS. 93

long been aimed at ; and various ideas have
arisen, some more or less similar, but it does not
appear that any yet tried can supersede the
common description of pick, except in some
special cases.

SHOVELS, SPADES, ETC.

Thb ground which is loosened and broken by
blastings and by the use of picks^ and other tools
to be hereafter noticed, soon requires to be
collected together or shifted. The shovel is a
highly serviceable tool for such work, within
small limits. It consists essentially of a light
" plate," furnished with a handle, or helve — ^the
plate being suitable for scraping together a mass
of loosened ground, and also for passing under
a portion thereof which will afterwards rest upon
it ; while the handle is required for conveniently
carrying the stuff thus supported, or for jerking
it off to a different place, or into vehicles.

The desirability of having such a tool must
have been recognised by the ancients at a very
early period. An examination of the relics of
some of their wooden shovels is likely to satisfy-
any one that they thoroughly apprehended the
principles of the shape of a good shovel. To
facilitate the passing of the plate under or be-
tween the sttiff, they reduced it to the minimum

SHOVELS, SPADES, ETC. 95

thickness consistent with the strength and wear
of the available material. To remove a conve-
nient quantity at each stroke, they took pains to
secure a broad plate, and that the grain should
run the best way to give it strength. They knew
the conditions of distance for shovelling, and of
space available in large and small workings, as
is proved by their having used long and short
handles, according to the controUing circum-
stances.*

These considerations include most of what
enters into the question of shovels.

When iron and steel became plentiful, it was
a fortunate circumstance as regards shovels.
Scarcely any materials could be more suited to
the reqinrements for the plate, as they combine
toughness, stiffness, and hardness.

Fig. 99 illustrates the very useful and common
"gravel shovel.'* The plate is of iron, with
steel around the front edges or "mouth,** and
is furnished with two "straps** or "ears,** to
receive a helve, which is nearly always made of
ash wood. The plate is slightly " dished,** which
means that it is slightly concave in the top
surface, caused by the sloping of the back and

* We have the plate of an oak shovel found in the old
workings of an iron mine at Llantrissant. Although much
worn, it is as large as an ordinary shovel of the present day.
The handle was formed out of the same piece.

96 MINING TOOLS.

sides. This affords firmness, and enables the plate
to sustain and keep together its load better than
if quite flat. The shaded part of the plate — Tit^here
it joins the straps — is buckled upward to give
strength, and it is termed the "crease." The
part of the plate each side of the straps is called
the " shoulder.'* The entering part of the plate
^-or mouth — which in the gravel shovel is pointed
like the bow of a ship, forms two sides, which are
termed the "edges." The helve is set at an
angle of about 140^ to 160® with the surface
of the plate, and is about 30 inches long. This
is necessary in all shovels on this principle, to
enable the plate to be horizontal with easy stoop^
ing by the users. The plate of this shovel is
well formed to facilitate its entering between
closely-compressed, heavy, or lumpy ground.

Fig. 100 represents a "Devon" or "long-
handled " shovel, with a plate of the same class,
only furnished with a " socket " for receiving a
long handle, generally 4 or 5 feet long, which '
admits of shovelling with less stooping, and of
getting a longer reach. The crease is long and
pointed, to facilitate entering. These shovels are
frequently used in Cornwall, Devon, and Somerset,
when there is sufficient room for such " stand-off"
helves. The point of the crease is the place at
which they are most liable to break.

SHOVELS, SPADES, ETC. 97

Fig. 101 represents a "frying-pan shovel,"
used for "filling" at many North of England
collieries. The plate resembles a shallow frying-
pan, but the tumed-up edges drop away at the
mouth. This has a socket-helve also.

Fig. 102. shows a "round-mouth shovel," used
for filling coal in many North Somerset collieries,
where the thinness of the seams necessitates using
helves not exceeding 20 inches long. " Round-
mouth" shovels — ^knownalso as "ballast shovels"
— answer very well for shovelling loose stuff not
too lumpy or heavy, and they are extensively used
at collieries, with helves about 30 inches long.
Sometimes the same sort of shovel is made with
a " square-mouth," as indicated by dotted lines.
Fig. 102, and these are often used for shovelling
very loose stuff, like small coal, &c.

Each of these shovels, except Fig. 100, has
a "crutch" handle or hilt, so called h'om the
cross-piece at the end. This kind of handle is
mostly preferred by miners to the D handle or
hilt (known also as the " open " or " eyed "
handle) shown by Fig. 103, which represents a
" pronged shovel," used for shovelling lumpy stuff,
or for leaving small stuff behind. Sometimes a
strip of iron or steel is welded along the points of
the prongs, to strengthen them, as in "chaff" or
"pulp forks," and sometimes the prongs are

F

98 MINING TOOLS.

welded to the back. These are sold either of cast-
steel or welded iron, as " graips *' or " digging
forks," with diamond, square, flat, or round
sectioned prongs, and they are stronger than
prongs riveted.

Shovels are almost invariably bought ready
made. Ordinary qualities have the plates manu-
factured by rolling out, under a welding heat,
two pieces of iron with a piece of steel between.
The ears, having been previously drawn out, are
kept from sticking together by sprinkling ashes
between. Iron of inferior quality can be used by
this method. Before rollers were employed, the
plate was formed by spreading out iron under a
weighty hammer. This is still done by some
manufacturers, and as only good iron will bear
spreading in such a way by "plating" under
the hammer, it is considered that good quality is
guaranteed in shovels made by this method.*

There are various other shapes of this class of
tool. In clay ground, a " clay spade," having a

♦ Anvils used for "plating** are 5 to 7 inches long by IJ
to 2 inches wide. The hammer faces are somewhat smaller
and oval-shaped. They are of mottled cast-iron, with chilled
working surfaces ground to a slight convexity. In order that
there may he a clean bright skin to the plate, it must not be
heated above a dull yellow heat, else the plating tools chop in
too much, and embed scale in its surface. From this limited
temperature, and the action of the tools, the process is a severe
test of the quality of iron.

SHOVELS, SPADES, ETC. 99

long and narrow square-mouthed plate, is in
many cases used. When the plate of such a
spade is straight lengthwise, but curved in the
back, like part of the side of a cylinder, as in Fig.
104, it is called a " grafting tool " or a " grafting
spade," and is much used for working in soft or
clay groxmd. The plate is a little wider across
the mouth than shoulders* A bit of iron, called a
tready for putting the foot upon, pointed at one
end, is driven into the handle, and the other end
riveted on the top of the plate, at x. When
the plate tapers so as to be narrow at the
mouth, but not at the shoulders, it is called a
" soughing tool.'*

The sizes of shovels are distinguished by the
iindth of the plate, measured in the widest part.
Shovels 8 and 10 inches wide are used for heavy
stuff ; 11 to 12-inch shovels are useful for general
work ; and for shovelling moderately light stuff,
such as coal, &c., 12 to 16-inch shovels are
regularly used.

In use, shovels are often strained like levers,
although they are ill fitted to withstand much of
it. This happens repeatedly, and in a manifest
manner, by shovelling from the bottom of a large
heap of stuff. After the shovel has entered the
pile of stuff above, the plate is freed by prizing
on the helve as indicated by the arrow a. Fig. 99.

f2

100 MINING TOOLS.

The shovel immediately takes fulcrum at the part
near the dotted lines by and by the superimposed
weight or resistance acting on the surface of the
plate, a severe tensional strain is thrown on the
crease, over the fulcrum, and on the top strap
near where it joins the plate. Shovels often give
way at this part by the breaking of the top strap,
and many almost new ones are spoiled thereby.
This is the weak point in most shovels, and as the
prizing is, within certain limits, legitimate and
necessary, shovels made with long straps extra
strong at the shoulders, and strong over the crease,
wiU always carry good recommendation.

Very good 10, 11, and 12-inch gravel' shovels
and round-mouth filling shovels can be bought at
from 22a. to 28s. per dozen, fitted with crutch-
handles complete.

Grafting tools, 12 inches by 6J inches, with
similar helves, cost about 2a. W. each, and 14 to
16-inch frying-pan shovels from 33s. to 43s. per
dozen. Well-made iron-pronged shovels, with
three to six prongs welded, and strapped helves,
cost from about 3s. to 5s. each ; if of cast-steel,
from &d, to Is. each extra. The best plated shovels,
without handles, can be bought for about 7\d.
per lb. A 41b. Devon shovel-plate, often used in
Cornwall, is generally sold for 2s. &d.

There is great multiformity in the shovels used

SHOVELS, SPADES, EXa 101

in foreign mines. Many of them are mucli like
those of our own country. Some are of a large
size, but in many instances they are used down to
as small as 5 or 6 inches in length and breadth.

We have no equivalent in this country for
some of the continental mining shovels. They
are more like what would be termed scrapers in
the British Isles ; but they are used by foreigners
in some cases as substitutes for shovels. Fig. 105
represents such a tool, which is made use of in
Saxony. The plate is a little curved up at the
sides. It will afford an idea of numerous other
congruent forms of shovel, with square, round,
and pointed mouths, to the use of which Hun-
garian and other foreign miners are accustomed.

The practice of using scrapers and scraping
shovels is very common in foreign mines. A
box or tray having two sides and a back, some-
thing like a waiter's tray, is used with them.
The stuff is first scraped into the tray, which is
then taken up by two side handles, and conveyed
in front of the individual (who generally wears a
leather apron) to the point required, where it is
tipped.

In Norway and Sweden wooden trays about
2 feet long, 15 inches wide, and 6 inches deep,
are used with a rectangular scraper, having a
blade 8 inches wide by 5 inches high, and handle

102 MINING TOOLS.

2 feet long. The trays carry about 40Ibs. of
mineral, and answer much the same purpose as
the "billies" so commonly used in the Dean
Forest iron mines by persons there employed
at conveying ore upon their backs — a mode of
transport which is in some measure advantageous
to the working of the irregular accumulations of
that district, but very prodigal when depended
upon to a great extent.

HATCHETS, AXES, AND ADZES.

A MINER cannot do much in soft- ground mining
without the use of timber, to cut and dress which
he requires a few tools well adapted to the pur-
pose. Those now to be considered form an im-
portant part of them.

A hatchet or axe consists essentially of a broad
heavy description of chisel, called the " head/'
having an eye running in the direction of the
cutting edge for receiving a handle, so that, like
a pick in one particular, it is suitable for giving
out a blow, to be expended in actuating the
cutting edge, which forms part of the tool itself;
the main difference being that a pick is used for
cutting rock, but an axe for cutting timber.

Illustrations of several patterns of this class of
tools are given. Handles shorter than those
shown are often used.

Fig. 106 represents the form known as the
" Irish axe," of very general use in numerous
districts. The main objection to this form is that
the edge gets narrower by wear. Fig. 107 shows

104 MINING TOOLS.

the " Torksliire axe/' not mucli unlike Fig. 108,
which represents the "Newcastle axe." The
"Scotch axe'* is shown by Fig. 109, and the
" Kent axe " by Fig. 110. A " claw '* is often
formed on the back of this axe, as shown in
dotted lines, for drawing out spikes and nails.
Sometimes the " claw " is put on the under side ;
and in other cases a slit, dotted on Fig. 109,
is used instead of a claw. Fig. Ill is known as
the " wedge axe," from its being suited for use as
a wedge ; and another axe, somewhat similar in
that respect, is shown by Fig. 112, called the
" forest axe."

The hatchet and axe are almost identical in
character. Some persons consider the axe is the
heavier tool, with heads weighing above 31bs.,
and suited for use with both hands, while the
hatchet is intended to be used by one hand only,
and has a head weighing under 31bs.

Some manufacturers consider that the differ-
ence between hatchets and axes is entirely in the
grinding of the edge. When the edge is bevelled
off distinctly, as at a, Fig. 106, it is a hatchet;
but when the edge is rounded off gradually, as
at 5, in Fig. 107, like the bow of a ship, it is an
axe. Axes are considered best for splittmg and
cross grain hetving ; but for chopping with the
grain, hatchets are best, because the bevel turns

HATCHETS, AXES^ AND ADZES. 105

off the chips, and keeps them out of the way of
the head. The part p, h, Fig. 106, is the head
in every hatchet or axe. The back, p, is called
the *'poll," and, when well made, it is strong and
faced with steel, to form a surface for striking
moderate blows. The ** eye " lies between the
cheeks c, c. The " blade " of an axe is the part
between the eye and cutting edge. It is gene-
rally broad and thin, composed of a doubled piece
of flattened wrought-iron welded together, with a
thin piece of steel between, to form the edge.
Hatchet and axe-heads used in mining may be
said to range from 21bs. to 81bs. in weight.

In some Somerset collieries, where light timber-
ing is practised, a 31b. hatchet is found very handy.
A 41b. hatchet is in very general use in many dis-
tricts. A 61b. or 71b. head is, perhaps, usually the
most convenient size for a timbering axe. It is in
very general use for ordinary timbering, and for
rather heavy work. Axe-heads of 81bs. weight and
upwards are in common use at South Wales collieries,
the pattern being like the forest axe, with the
length of the head disproportionately increased
so as to measure 12 inches and more when new.

Hatchet handles are generally single-feathered,
and from 14 to 20 inches long. Axe handles are
longer ; from 16 to 26 inches, in many instances
30 inches, and occasionally as much as 36 inches.

p3

106 MINING TOOLS.

The cutting edge of these tools is formed by
grinding the front of the plate, both sides in
ordinary eases, on a grindstone, so as to form two
inclined planes or curved surfaces, meeting each
other at an acute angle. In this manner the
iron on both sides is ground away, and the steel
between forms the edge.

The acuteness of the angle forming the edge
should not be enough to make it very thin and
liable to break, for it wastes a lot of time and
material to grind out notches in order to repro-
duce a sharp edge. On the other hand, if the
edge is bluff by a very obtuse angle, it will not
cut well, and for chopping deep cuts it will not
catch the sides in a narrow gash, but will require
a cut to be very wide at the top to allow the head
to be held sufficiently oblique.*

For chopping hard wood, the requisite strength
requires a bluflFer edge (a more obtuse angle) than
may be used for soft wood. The angle contained
between the two sloping planes to form the edge
usually varies from 15^ to 30^ accordingly.

For chopping large flat surfaces, some hatchets
or axes are always used one way — e.g., only one
particular side of the blade is ever used to face

* This will be clearly understood by referring to Figs.
89 and 90, relatuig to picks. The same conditions apply to the
hatchet and axe.

HATCHETS, AXES, AND ADZES. 107

the surface which is being chopped. This is called
the inside of the blade, and the edge is ground
very acutely on this side, while on the outside it
is ground more obtusely, as shown by sections at
5, Figs. 106, 109, and 110. Such a form of edge is
very suitable for side chopping over large flat
surfaces. The so-called " squaring axe " or " side
axe," of sundry, patterns, is ground in a corre-
sponding manner.* Miners almost invariably
grind both sides alike, so that the tool may be
used with equal success both ways.

The " felling axe " has usually a long narrow
blade, shaped like Fig. 113, thick and heavy at
the eye, and tapering gradually towards the edge.
The "mortise axe," Fig. 114, is often useful for
mortising heavy timber lised in large workings.

Hatchets and axes are generally bought ready
made. Only the best quality can be recom-
mended for mining. The sizes of axe-heads are
sometimes classed under the following heads : —

Hxtra light, from 2|lb8. to 3jlbs.
Light, from 3ilbs. to 41bs.
Medium, from 41bs. to S^lbs.
Heavy, from 5Jlbs. to 71bs.
Extra heavy, above 71bs.

* Sometimes the eye of a squaring axe is altogether on the
outside, as shown at q^ Fig. 110, or like a cooper's axe.

108 XCa^G TOOLSL

With steel poUs^ good axes cost in this Gonntiy :
for the ligki size, about 8d, to %/. per lb. ; medium
size, frcHn 7^. to 8^. per lb. ; and kearp sizey firom
6|(/. to 7d, per lb. Solid steel axes cost about 6dL
per lb. extra.

Best solid steel 61b. axes, with good helves
complete, are s<dd by some ironmongers at 8s. 9d.
each.

Sham-polled iron axes can be bought for 5dL
per lb., but they are almost worthless to miners.

Hatchets and axes are often made at the mine,
and some miners think them stronger and more
serviceable than those supplied by ironmongers ;
but they cost more than ready-made ones. Mine
smiths are not, as a rule, much accustomed to
making them.

Usually they form the eye by doubling over a
piece of iron to make a loop for afterwards drifting
to shape. The doubled part is then welded and
spread to form the blade — a piece of steel haviDg
been put between to form the cutting edge.
After the head is shaped as desired, and the
poll faced with steel, the edge is hardened and
tempered straw colour, and the poll about purple.

Axe- heads which have much " outlying," as is
represented in Fig. 108, are liable to quiver in
use, and to produce a tremor through the helve
when the cutting comes on the outer part of the

HATCHETS, AXES, AND ADZES. 109

edge. They are not generally considered to fall
so effectively as "inlying" axe-heads, indicated
by Fig. 112.*

As may be expected, foreign miners have a
great variety of chopping tools for timbering.
They are oftenest single-hand, and rather light
tools.

Figs. 115 and 116 are hatchets used in Saxony,
and Fig. 117 shows one used in Hungary, with
an outer and inner keen edge on the blade.

The adze known as the railway adze (the head
of which is seen in Fig. 118), or the platelayer's
adze, Fig. 119, is very useful where much flat
surfacing or " dubbing " work has to be done.
Both have steeled polls.

Adze-heads vary in weight, like hatchets and
axes, and cost about the same, or often Id. or 2d,
per lb. extra. A convenient weight is 61bs.

The edge of an adze stands square across the
helve, as it is used underhand for cutting surfaces
parallel to the soles of the ujser's feet.

As a rule, miners are not adepts at using an
adze, but now and then they find it a very useful
tool.

* The relative positions of the centres of gravity and of per-
cussion are more favourable for the prevention of jarring in
inlying than outlying axes.

For block-chopping stone axe, see Miscellaneous Tools,
Fig. 169.

SAWS.

An attempt to divide thick timber with an axe
wiD soon show that, in order to give the axe room
to work, the cut must be a gash of considerable
width ; and the deeper it is required, the wider it
must be at the top. This involves great waste
of timber and physical effort; and, after all,
the cut is not, at the best of times, very even or
regular. Timber can be divided in a neat and
comparatively easy manner by the saw*

The saw consists essentially of a thin plate —
best of steel — having a line of small chisels or
teethy formed in succession on one of its edges, and
furnished with means for moving it in the direc-
tion of the teeth while they are pressed against
the material to be sawn.

Each tooth, one after the other, cuts away a
shaving or chip; and as all the teeth follow in

* ITie saw is of great antiquity, and is said to be represented
on Egyptian monuments, owing its origin to the use of a snake*s
jaw-bone lor dividing small pieces of wood.

SAWS. Ill

line, they form a narrow slit, or " kerf/' of the
same width as the teeth occupy.

While the motion is continued, the kerf is pro-
longed, or deepened, and the plate or blade, as it
is usually termed, passes into the kerf to allow
the teeth to follow their work.

Saws are used for cutting various substances,
but it will be our business to consider them mainly
as applied to cutting timber for underground
work.

The best saw-blades are made of cast-steel.
Shear-ateel makes fair blades. They should be
thin, and as stiff as possible, with sufficient elas-
ticity to regain their truth after bending. The
blade is made as thin as possible, consistent with
giving it the necessary stiflFness, in order to secure
a narrow kerf, thereby to save timber and useless
expenditure of power in sawing.

Fig. 120 represents a "hand saw," which is
frequently a very useful tool to miners. 26 to
28 inches is a convenient length for the blade.
The cost of such a saw, of the best cast-steel
quality, is from 4s. 6c?. to 5s. at ironmongers' shops.

Fig. 121 is a sketch of the " crosscut saw."
This is a very serviceable tool for dealing with
heavy timber. Two persons are required to use
it. A blade of from 4 to 5J feet in length is a
useful size, and when made of good cast-steel, the

112 MINING TOOLS.

cost may be taken as ranging from 10a. to 138.
each.

Fig. 122 shows the blade of a " pit saw." This
saw is of great utility in converting large quan-
tities of rough timber into true pieces, planks, or
boards. It is used by two persons — one standing
above the other. The top sawyer's handle, called
the " tiller," is illustrated by Fig. 123 ; and the
"pit saw box," the bottom sawyer's handle, which
is made entirely of wood, by Fig. 124. For the
latter purpose, Fig. 125 shows one which is made
partly of iron.

Although the pit saw is seldom used by mine
timber men, it is advantageous if they are able to
work with it in some cases of emergency. In
cases of rareness it finds its way underground, and
a capital saw-pit can be made by stoping out the
floor of a level.

A pit saw blade about 7 feet long is a useful
size, and if made of best cast-steel, it would cost
about 17s. to 20«

Saws of an inferior quality, known as German
steel, can be bought for about one-sixth less.

As much as possible of the sawing required at
mines is best done at the surface by men specially
accustomed to the work; but often a miner's
calling demands that he should be able to saw for
himself, underground as well as above.

SAWS. 113

The teeth of saws are sharpened by fine files —

generally second-cut single, or smooth, or dead-
smooth float-cut, according to the fineness required.
Three-square files * are used for sharpening hand
and crosscut saws, and half-round or round gul-
leting files are used for pit saws. For hand-saw
files, serviceable lengths are 6 or 7 inches, and they
cost Qd, to 7d, each, or less if bought in quantities.

After the teeth are filed, a little raggedness is
left on their outside edges. This should be re-
moved by laying the saw down on its side on
some flat surface, and rubbing a long hone, or fine
grit-stone, along the sides of the teeth — ^thus
giving the tips smooth and keen edges and points,
and reducing any prominences.

Of all saws, the hand saw is most useful to
miners. The handle — ^made of wood, and fixed
on the wide end of the blade — is generally more
slender and gracefully formed than the one we
have shown ; but a plain, strong, and comfortable
handle is what is really required.

Properly there are two sorts of hand saws,
differiQg chiefly in the shape of the teeth. One
is used for cutting tcith the grain of the wood, and
is called a '^ rip saw ; " and the other is adapted for
cutting across the grain, and is called a " crosscut

* These files are called blunt when the comers are parallel
and taper when they tend to a point.

114 MINING TOOLS.

hand %axoy Hand saws are made to cut one way
only — ^by pushing — so that the thinness of the
blade requires that it should be made wide to give
it sufficient stiflhess to resist hucMing^ and to
afford room for sharpening the teeth, which gra-
dually wear away by filing.

When a curved cut is required, saw-blades must
be narrow^ in proportion to the radius of the
curve and the width of the kerf, so that they
may form a tangent to the circular cut. This
circumstance requires that the blade should be
strained — to give it stiffness — in a frame^ some-
times called a " saw bow," in which it is tight-
ened by a screw, or Spanish winch arrangement.

Four points, relating to the teeth of saws,
deserve consideration, viz. : —

Ist. Setting.

2nd. Bevelling.

3rd. Angle of the cutting edge.

4th. Size of the teeth.
We shall find it most convenient to take them in
this order.

1st. Setting, — The teeth of a saw have to be
arranged to cut a kerf somewhat wider than the
thickness of the blade, to allow it to move freely
between the sides of the kerf, without wasting the
power applied by having to overcome much fric-
tion. This object is sometimes attained by grinding

SAWS. 115

the blade of the saw thinner behind the teeth.
Oftener, however, the same purpose is answered by
bending every other tooth sideways in one direc-
tion, and every intervening tooth in the opposite
direction. This operation is called " setting,'* and
it explains the spreading out of the teeth notice-
able in Fig. 126, which shows the end of a saw-
blade as seen by looking along the line of teeth.

As the teeth thus bent, or set, would cut a kerf
equal in width to the space between the dotted
lines, the blade would have plenty of liberty to
pass between.

The setting of the teeth requires care. It
should be done throughout with as much uni-
formity as possible. A wrench having slits in it
to fit over the teeth, and called a " saw set," is
generally used for bending the teeth, each suc-
ceeding tooth being inclined in an opposite direc-
tion. Many persons require long practice to do
this well. There are some mechanical contri-
vances to be obtained for setting saws by hammer
blows, which greatly simplify the work. Very
wet or " green " wood, being a little spongy, re-
quires more set on the saw used for cutting it
than timber which is dry. For the same reason,
the sawing of soj^ wood requires a little more set
than hard wood. The set should be only just
enough to permit the blade to move easily in the

£xiflu £imi:^m*p. — JTiffin^ <i wt i^ of wmw
teeuL tJWMi'iiiH.'i.g it a maBmrnr cimMk <Mlp% dkcj
tarn ht madt i» icEKnise ia a skiip /■■■/ lij
whaCL s iTffwwi "^ iiprajag,'* «^ ike jfkmmi cht
l«a( cfcBf^ UHC^ iBST putakrcf a knife edge on

Has ii done Inr boUicg ike £le^ «nd fer dmp-
cnmg tke teeA, t^^&gm^ \o ike plaiie of tke smw
plate, iiwtfaJ of at ri^ld mmfkM to it» ao tkat tke
edges €ji the teetk becooie iewBeii as Aawn in
Fig. 127, and eonaeqiientlYy hy kwking at tke
end ai tke blade, tke line of teetk is seoi to
brm two rows ctpoiMdt, as sbown lir Fig. 128.

BereUing, tken, makes tke tips of tke teetk
more inei$ory^ and enaUes tkcm to score into tke
wood on eacb side of tke korfl Tke more
obliquely tke file is keld to tke line of teetk, the
more tke bevel will b^ and tke more acute will be
ike points of tke teetk. Tke arif^aess of tke points
can be inflaenced by tke amount of bevel on tke
hackH of the teeth independently of the bevel on
the front edges, but in the crosscut saw both
edges are alike.

The proper bevel to be adopted depends mainly
fipcm the angle at which the line of teeth has to
iiitcrscct the grain of the wood to be sawn.

SAWS. 117

The advantage of bevelling applies principally
to saws for cross cutting, because in this kind of
work the fibre has to be severed on each side of
the kerf, and the teeth should have acute points,
in order that they may easily score down the sides
of the kerf, whereupon, through the fibre being
completely cut off in two places, the intermediate
bits will crumble out as " dust " by contact with
the moving teeth.

The more acute the points can reasonably be
made for crosscutting any sort of wood, the
better for sawing; but with hard wood much
bevel would make the points too slender to stand
well.

For crosscut hand saws, one thing to avoid is
filing too much bevel on the front edges of the

teeth. When bevelled very much the teeth do not
carry out the dust well, but they turn it over alter-
nately from side to side of the kerf, so that it gets
jammed in and binds the saw. Fig. 129 shows a
plan of a horizontal saw cut, showing two teeth
in it, and supposing the back of the saw to be
removed. It will be noticed that, at a, the bevel
fronts of these teeth act like the breast of a
ploughshare by turning the dust aside, but the
square-front teeth, shown at b, are better adapted
for carrying the dust forward that it may be
cleared out of the kerf. The difference between

1J8 MINING TOOLS.

the bevel filed on the hack and on the front of a
tooth is not sufficiently understood. Many sin-
gular opinions respecting much beyel being a
disadvantage for crosscutting hard wood on
account of the teeth scoring too easily y and cutting
deeper chips than they can carry out, probably
owe their origin to an oversight of the difference
just referred to.*

Now, for rip saws hardly any bevel is required,
since the fibres part easily in longitudinal direc-
tion, while the dust, instead of being crumbled, is
shaved off, as will be seen hereafter. A slight
bevel is generally allowed, as the grain of the
wood does not always run exactly in line with the
saw cut.

3rd. Angle of the cutting edge. — ^This refers
to the inclination of the front edge of the tooth,
and it is sometimes spoken of as the pitch.

In the case of rip saws, the angle of the cutting
edge is a very important point, because each
tooth ought to be well adapted to the paring off
of small shavings. Reference to Fig. 130 will
show that the teeth at the lower part are formed
suitable for paring the shavings easily, while the
upper teeth can only drag or Jag out little bits,

♦ The crosscut saw, shown by Fig. 121, must have the same
bevel filed on the front as on the back of the teeth, because it
cuts both ways.

SAWS. 119

at the expense of much waste of power. Parrot
bill and gullet teeth are not used for hand saws.

In sawing timber, one tooth cuts a shaving or
carries out a bit of "dust" behind another, and
this allows the blade to progress in its course or to
" advance " by deepening the kerf continuously.
The rate of advance depends upon the thickness
of the shaving cut by each tooth, as will appear
plain on reference to Fig. 130, where the thick-
ness of the shavings, represented by dotted lines,
is a little exaggerated for the sake of clearness.

When the teeth are sawing, the line of motion
of each tooth is parallel to a, S, and not to the
line of tips, S, c. By the time the tooth h has cut
along and down to a, other teeth, above S, will
have cut the upper part of the kerf back to dy so
that the face of the kerf always remains parallel to
tty d — the direction maintained by the line of tips.

The thicker the shavings are, the greater will be
the angle contained between the line of tips and
a, b, and the quicker will be the rate of advance.
As in the case of any cutting tool, the thickness
of the parings, or the penetration of the edge, is
governed not entirely by the angle of the edge,
but largely by the pressure applied ; and so it is
with the teeth of a saw. The total pressure
applied to a saw may be said to be divided about
equally on each of the teeth which take bearing.

120 MCnXG TOOLS.

l^ then, the juece to be sawn is Teir thick or deep
in the direction of the &ce of the keif, there will
be more teeth bearing, and oonseqiiently less
pressure per tooth, so that thinner shayings will
be cut than when the piece is thin or shallow.
In sawing sach a thin piece, all the pressure on
the saw being dirided on few teeth causes them
to penetrate deeply and cut coarse shayings or
dust ; hence the saw adyances rapidly. This
explains how, with the same saw, the dust from, a
deep-faced cut \& finer than from a shaliow-faced one.

Although the teeth ar. Fig. 130, would be a
better form for a rip saw than the teeth s, they
would not answer as well for a crosscut saw, be-
cause, as it will be remembered, the teeth of a
crosscut saw are not required to pare shayings so
much as to scare through the fibre on both sides
of the kerf. It also appears plain that the tooth
shown by Fig. 131, if moyed in the direction of
the arrow oyer a piece of wood, is not adapted to
make such a smooth and clean incision as the
dog-tooth shown in Fig. 132.*

If, however, the teeth of a crosscut hand saw
are made quite of the dog-tooth shape, they will
often be found to have too much tendency to ride

* Scribing tools are, for a similar reason, sharpened with
diagonal edges, to enable them to scribe into wood without
causing raggedness.

SAWS. 121

ot)er the dust, so that the fronts of the teeth re-
quire to be a little more upright, as at z, Fig. 130,
to properly clear the kerf.

The crosscut saw (Fig. 121), having to cut
both ways, has peg-teethy which are filed so that
the cutting edges are identical in shape for both
strokes, as previously observed with reference to
the bevel. The result is that, although the angle
is favourable for scoring easily, it is not the most
favourable for clearing out the dust either way,
unless made moderately upright with slight bevel.

To remedy this, Tuttle's patent crosscut saw
has been introduced. The novelty is in the shape
of the teeth, a few of which are represented by
Fig. 133, which shows a piece of the edge of the
blade, supposed to be broken off with a few teeth
on it. The dog-teeth are bevelled for scoring
easily, whereas the intermediate hook-teeth are
filed with square edges, and shaped well for
clearing out the dust.

This saw is reputed to do its work vert/ rapidly.
The teeth are rather slender, which is no recom-
mendation for underground work; and after
repeated sharpening, the hooks, instead of being
preserved, will file out altogether, thereby neces-
sitating the formation of a new set of teeth.

4th. Size of teeth. — After deciding the snape
and the pitch or cutting edge of saw teeth to the

o

122 mxiNG Toous.

best advantage for strengtii, efficiency, ana con-
venience of sharpening, their size depends on four
considerations, viz. : — 1st, the nature of the wood
to be sawn ; 2nd, the direction of the cut ; 3rd,
the pressure to be applied on the saw, and the
sharpness of the teeth ; 4th, the depth of the cut.

When a saw is in use, every space between the
teeth becomes a store-room for the chips, shavings,
or dust, until it passes through the wood, where-
upon the dust falls out. It is an advantage, in
some respects, to have the greatest number of
teeth which can be consistently formed in a saw
for doing the work, but if the teeth are numerous
they are necessarily narrow, and the spaces be-
tween them are smalL These spaces have to
serve as repositories for the dust, and in case of
their not being sufficiently large, the dust, by
accumulating, gets compressed in them, and keeps
the teeth from advancing with good effect.

Now spaces cannot be enlarged between teeth
of given distance apart without weakening the
latter ; therefore, when large spaces are required,
it necessitates having fewer teeth.

The softer the wood, the coarser the teeth are
required, to afford ample intermediate space for
holding the dust, which collects more rapidly
from soft wood than from hard-cutting sorts.

For a similar reason, as wood cuts more easily

SAWS. 123

tcith than cicrosa the grain, the teeth of a rip saw
should be coarser than are needed for Sicrosscut saw.

As increased pressure on the saw, or sharper
teeth, make it cut dust more rapidly, it is clear
that the greater the pressure and sharpness, the
larger the store-room or space should be. Saws
worked by two persons, on account of having
more pressure applied to them, require coarser
teeth than saws worked by one individual ; and
sometimes good cutting saws get crammed or
choked by putting an excess of pressure upon them.

In a deep or long kerf a great many teeth pare
at once, and under a given pressure the shavings
or chips cut are thinner than would come from
a shallow or short kerf, but the whole volume of
dust cut by each tooth throughout the long kerf
is generally greater than would be produced in a
short one ; and hence the deeper kerf needs the
larger store-room or space between the teeth.

For hand saws the following are the numbers of
teeth per inch suitable for the different sorts of
wood : —

Soft wood

•

crosscut

. 6 teeth.

per inch

. 6 points

Medium ,,

•

>i

. 7

ii

fi

• 8 „

Hard ,,

•

>>

. 9

»♦

»»

• 10 „

Soft wood

•

rip

. 3

»j

»>

• 4 ,,

Medium „

•

>i

. 4

»i

j»

• 6 i<

Hard „

•

It

. 5

>»

»»

. 6 „

o2

124 MINING TOOLS.

Saws should be selected to suit the work which
they are intended chiefly to do— in some mines
cutting larch, spruce, &c., in others chestnut or
beech, and sometimes chiefly oak.

Before a saw can be expected to cut with facility,
the plate should be true and smooth, and every
tooth should be formed to do its work with as
little expenditure of power as possible. Moreover,
the kerf ought to be as narrow as practicable with
giving the blade sufficient freedom. The teeth
should stand in regular order, and should be
uniformly filed; for if only one tooth projects
beyond the rest, or is too prominent sideways,
it encounters unnecessary work, and interferes
with the duty of others, while a too retired tooth
does no service whatever, but rather overburdens
the adjoining ones.

In hand and pit saws the line of tips should be
straight, or very slightly " bellied." If the tips
get very irregular they had better be filed off until
all project equally, and then every tooth can be
sharpened again, care being taken to stop the
filing immediately the tip is formed, for if con-
tinued further it shortens the tooth. If by any
accident a tooth becomes too short, it should be
allowed to remain so until, from wear, all the rest
of the teeth get filed down to fall in line with it.

SAWS. 125

No good can be done by filing down a few teetb
adjoining the short one.

When a hand saw is held vertically, a piece of
fine cotton suspending a weight, and fastened be-
tween the top pair of teeth, will hang like a
plumb-line, and ought to lie quite straight in the
bottom of the valley formed by the bevel and set
of the teeth, from top to bottom of the saw.

" Stone saws," which are commonly of the
double-hand crosscut pattern, but with a straight
back to the blade, like a Eussian crosscut saw,
are used by miners in certain instances for cutting
soft minerals, such as rock-salt, freestone, &c.
They are furnished with dog-teeth, which are
filed without any bevel. A common size is f of
an inch from point to point. The blades of stone
saws are commonly nearly \ of an inch thick ;
and, for large sizes, still thicker. Sometimes the
difierence between the thickness of the blade at
the back and at the front is sufficient to give
proper clearance without any set on the teeth.
Setting of the teeth may be performed by laying
them on an iron block, so that the points over-
hang a little more than \ of an inch, and then
giving every other tooth a smart tap with
a hammer having about a lib. head, with a
narrow pane. The intermediate teeth are set in

126 MINING TOOLS.

the same manner, after turning the blade to lie
on the reverse side. This mode of setting bends
the teeth only near their tips, and produces a
small flattened surface where contact with the
hammer occurs on one side or the other of each
tooth — slightly diminishing the thickness at the
points. It is a method preferred by many to the
use of a saw set, which they consider increases the
liability to break teeth by straining them at
the roots, especially as the saws referred to are
of a rather hard temper for wearing well in use.
In cutting dry freestone, the dusfc from sawing
clears out from the kerf freely ; but in dealing
with damp stone, though softer, the dust often
clogs, unless water is passed into the kerf in suffi-
cient quantity to convert the abraded stone into
a liquid sludge capable of being worked out by
the movement of the saw. The handles of stone
saws used for freestone cutting are usually from
18 inches to 2 feet in length. Sometimes they are
furnished with ferrules like file handles, suited for
driving over tangs, — called " stearts," — riveted
to the blade. More generally, however, the
handles fit into sockets, after the manner shown
in Fig. 121 — a plan which is better for convenience
of changing, or renewing, when needed. The blade
of a 7- feet stone saw, about 11 inches deep at
the bellied part, can be procured for about 21«.

SAWS. 127

At the Box stone- quarries " one-handled saws "
are in constant use for cutting off blocks of stone
from their natural positions, in a manner which
is far superior to the former practice of doing so
with j adding tools, which required more time and
caused greater waste of stone — ^no trifling con-
siderations.* The length of these saws is, of
course, governed by the dimensions of the blocks
required. It is seldom less than 6 feet, but some-
times more than double that length. The end at
which the handle is placed is called the "heel,'*
and it is less in depth than the other extremity —
the " toe " or '* point," which encounters greater
wear in use, chiefly by a tendency of the saw to
weigh upon that part. When new, the teeth range
in a straight line, continuing quite out to the
point. The back is also straight, and the blade
regularly increases in depth from its heel until
near the point where the back is curved off, as a
quadrant, to meet the line of teeth at the toe end.
By use, the wear of teeth near the toe, and fre-
quent filing, cause them to deviate from a
straight line, and to curve upwards to meet the
back. Small sizes of such saw-blades when new

* Jadding tools are still used for holing over the upper sides
of the blocks to be detached, in order that room may be pro-
vided for the saws to commence working for the vertical aidi
and back cuts.

128 MINING TOOLS.

are about 10 inches deep at the heel, and 12
inches at the toe, but after continued wear the toe
becomes much less in depth than the heel. Socket
handles are usually employed, on account of being
handiest for changing. When beginning a cut
close under the overlying strata or roof of the
so-called quarry, the handle has to be removed
and driven in at the under side of the socket, in
order to clear the roof and enable a sawyer to
take hold below the socket-piece. When socket-
pieces are fitted to saws at the quarries, smiths
put them on the blade in a red-hot state, and the
holes are not punched through the steel blade
until it has become a little heated to reduce any
risk of cracking. The three-square files used for
sharpening are about 10 inches long, and cost 9«.
per dozen or thereabout. Some proprietors of
these quarries — ^producing Bath stone, so much
in request for architectural purposes — order their
saws by tons. This will convey some idea of the
extent to which saws are employed by those
engaged in this branch of industry.

Proficient saw-filing, although in some cases
involving many considerations, is an art never-
theless easily acquired by any person of ordinary
intelligence. When a miner has much timbering
to do, his work will be greatly facilitated if he can
command the use of a good saw, and he will soon

SAWS. 129

experience the advantage of keeping it in efficient
order.

A good saw is a most serviceable cutting instru-
ment, and, by attending to the points which have
been noticed, miners will be able to make favour-
able use of its capabilities, and to fettle their saws
for themselves better than many who profess to
imderstand it.

It may be noticed that the teeth of a saw,
especially if worked by machinery, can become
so heated by work as to reduce their temper, at
the same time causing, by expansion, local or
general buckling of the blade or plate.

o 3

MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS.

We now enter npon a very diversified chapter.

Fig. 134 represents a "scraper," used for clean-
ing out, at intervals, the pulverized matter from
bore-holes, so that it may not prevent the bit from
operating freely on the solid rock. The pulverized
matter is called boring-dust or meal, and when it
has been wetted to facilitate boring, it is called
sludge. If much of it is allowed to accumulate in
a hole, it materially interferes with the effective-
ness of borers. Scrapers are usually made of
light rod-iron — \ to | inch diameter — suflBciently
long to reach to the bottom of the hole intended
to be cleaned, and having the scraping end flat-
tened out nearly as large as the diameter of the
bore-hole, so that it may be turned up at about
right angles to the rod for forming a small circular
platform, on which the boring-dust maybe collected
and removed. When the scraper is put into a
bore-hole and slightly turned round, the dust, or
sludge, accumulates on the platform, and can be

MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS. 131

drawn out a little at a time until it is sufficiently
cleared away. From ascending bore-holes, with a
rapid upward inclination, the dust falls out of its
own accord ; but the advantage of thus having the
end of the hole constantly cleared is countervailed
by the disadvantage of there being no means of
keeping water in the hole while boring. Fig. 135
shows a double scraper, with a mushroom stage
on one end. Fig. 136 shows a scraper having a
sliding-rod, so that it can be lengthened for long
or deep holes. Fig. 137 shows a scraper with a
" drag-twist " on one end of the rod. The drag
is used for cleaning out holes before putting in
the charge. In this case a wisp of hay is pushed
into the hole, and the drag is afterwards put in
and turned around, so that the hay, becoming
entangled, gets turned around also, and sweeps
the sides of the hole. Upon withdrawing the
drag, the hay comes out in one wad, and carries
the sludge with it. Fig. 138 shows a scraper
made out of light flat iron, with a " loop-drag "
on one end, used also for cleaning holes by pass-
ing a bit of rag or tow through the loop, so that
it may be put into the hole to sweep out the
sludge.

Fig. 139 represents a scraper having a powder
charger on one end of the rod, forming a " scoop "
or " spoon " for conveying the powder to the

132 MINING TOOLS.

ends of horizontal holes. The scoop is also used,
in some instances, for clearing out the boring-dust.

Drags and spoons are often made as separate
tools. These, and ordinary scrapers, cost from
4d, to 6d. per lb.

The " swab-stick," represented by Fig. 140, is
habitually used by many miners for clearing bore-
holes. It is simply a piece of stick — generally
deal — small enough to enter the hole, and long
enough to reach to the bottom, with its fibre at one
end spread out by bruising to form a stumpy sort
of brush, called the " swab." When this is put
into the bore-hole, the sludge passes by the fibrous
swab, which, when it reaches the extremity of the
hole, can be spread by pressure so as to touch the
sides all round ; and when it is withdrawn, it
sweeps out the sludge before it. Repeating this
operation a few times makes the hole tolerably
clean, and by throwing a little dust, at the latter
part of the operation, into the hole, the moisture
is absorbed thereby, and the sludge dried up. Any
grains of powder adhering to the side of the hole
after charging are removed by damping the swab
in water.* Another contrivance also used for
clearing bore-holes is the " sludger," represented

* When a borer-bit breaks in the hole, the broken piece can
often be extracted by hammering down the swab-stick upon it
80 as to embed it in the swab.

MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS. 133

by Fig. 141. It consists of a long cylinder —
ordinarily a piece of wrought-iron gas-pipe — for
reaching into the hole, furnished with a small rod
of iron to work inside, having a bow handle at one
end, and a drag-twist at the other. A bit of hemp
or tow is wound around the twist, to form a kind
of piston for working within the tube. When
this sludger is placed in a descending hole, upon
drawing up the piston-rod it sucks the sludge up
into the tube, and by rapidly withdrawing the
whole apparatus, the sludge can be squirted away
outside by pushing the rod back again. The
hole will be properly cleared by repeating the
operation a few times. There is no valve at the
bottom of this sludger, which is seldom made of
a tube above three-quarters of an inch diameter
inside, so that it is suitable for use only in bore-
holes of ordinary size for blasting.

In cases of deep bore-holes, as for wells or ex-
ploratory purposes, Fig. 142 shows a section of
a sludger or " scoop " sometimes employed, and
dropped down into the hole on the end of a rope,
chain, or the rods. By jerking the sludger on the
bottom of the hole, the sludge raises the valve at
the bottom of the cvlinder, and enters. It soon
becomes laden with sludge, and is then drawn to
the top, the valve at the bottom resting on its
seating, and preventing the contents from running

134 MINING TOOLS.

out. The same kind of sludger is also used for
clearing bore-holes through running sand. The
common trap-clack, or conical valve, is sometimes
fitted at the bottom. A butterfly- valve, or an
ordinary ball or shot valve, is also used in some
instances.*

Mr. Mather, who employs flat wire ropes in-
stead of rods for deep boring, uses a sludger which
is fitted with an inside piston for producing a
partial vacuum above the bottom valve, in order
to suck the sludge into the cylinder upon the
same principle as in Fig. 141, with the addition
of a bottom valve. The tool shown by Fig. 20 is
occasionally used for removing boring- dust or
sludge from the bottoms of deep holes.

Figs. 143 and 144 represent ordinary forms of
" clay-irons " used for forcing clay into the joints
and crevices around watery holes, in order to
make them dry, and fit for using naked powder,
which is more effective and cheaper than when
enclosed in cartridges or pitch-bags. The clay-
iron is a round bar of iron (called the ** shaft '*)
a little smaller in diameter than the bore-hole,
furnished with a brqad top (called the " head ")
for striking upon. Some provision is necessary
for turning the shaft around its axis, &c. This is

* Leather or india-rubber valves are said to hold tighter than
metallic valves, which are sometimes trigged with grit.

MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS. 136

usually done by a lever, shown at «, whicli is put
into an eye formed through the head of the clay-
iron ; but the one illustrated by Fig. 145 has a
square head for being turned by a spanner or
wrench, c.

After a wet hole is charged with some tough
clay, the shaft of a clay-iron is driven through it
by a sledge, and this, acting like a wedge, forces
the clay into the crevices on all sides. The shaft
is then turned and gradually drawn out. Some-
times the entrance of water is thereby stopped,
and the hole remains quite dry after the first
attempt, but it may require several repetitions,
and in some instances it cannot be made to succeed
at all, either from the rock being too open or
cavernous, or from the water acting with great
pressure — in some instances sufficient to make
the clay-iron rebound after each blow of the
sledge, and to force it completely out of the
hole.

Clay-irons have to endure a good deal of ham-
mering on the head; therefore this part is usually
made very stout on account of the wear. Those
with an eye are most convenient for drawing out.
The shaft should be smooth, and should taper a
little to conduce to withdrawing, but the bottom
of the hole will be too much contracted unless
the taper be very slight. Miners accustomed to

136 MINING TOOLS.

driving througli watery strata, often attach im-
portance to the clay-iron, and it is easy to con-
ceive why so, if we remember how frequently it
enables them to stop back all water running into
a bore-hole, and thereby provide a dry receptacle
for the charge.

Ordinary clay-irons cost about Sd, per lb.

When the heads wear down near the eye, they
should be sent in good time to the smith's shop to
have a new piece welded on.

Fig. 146 represents a "shooting-needle" or
"nail," made of round rod-iron, and used for
forming a " vent-hole " or small passage through
the tamping which confines the charge in a bore-
hole for blasting. The passage is used for ad-
mitting a mote or squib to enable the charge to be
ignited. When the charge is put into the hole,
the needle is laid in with its point penetrating
the explosive compound. The tamping is next
rammed or stemmed in, and the needle is after-
wards drawn out, which is often facilitated by
putting an iron bar through the bow handle, and
striking the bar with a hammer. When it is
withdrawn, a small passage or channel remains,
like a long touch-hole, leading into the charge.
A rmh, reed, paper, or quill tube, filled with a
"priming" of gunpowder, and termed a " match,"
"squib," "mote," or "train," is next passed

MTSCELLANEOTJS TOOLS. 187

through the touch-hole into the charge. Subse-
quently, a " smift," which is variously made of
either a bit of touch- wood, touch-paper, greased
candle-wick or paper, or cotton dipped in molten
sulphur, is attached by a bit of grease or clay to
the outside end of the train. At the extremity far-
thest from the train, this smift is ignited, after it
has been arranged to burn long enough to give the
miner sufficient time to retire before it kindles the
top of the train, which then instantly conveys the
fire to the charge and explodes it. This primi-
tive method of exploding charges is still in con-
siderable use. Many casualties have occurred by
accidentally lighting the train instead of the
miifty whereupon the explosion occurs before the
miner has any chance to get away. Such acci-
dents may now and then be traced to carelessness
in adjusting the smift in places where a current
of air occurs, by thoughtlessly putting it on the
windward side. Then, on attempting to light
the proper end of the smift by applying a flame,
the latter may be so deflected by the draught as
to prematurely ignite the squib. Again, in work-
ing some parts of coal measures a little fire-damp
will sometimes escape unawares through or about
the bore-hole, and lurk about the smift. On bring-
ing a naked light into contact with the smift, the
gas explodes and forms a small cloud of fire sur-

138 MINING TOOLS.

rounding the priming, which thereby fires the
charge without warning.*

Untold accidents ha^e also occurred by drawing
out the needle, in consequence of sparks being
produced by its rubbing against any silicious
matter in the tamping, whereupon the charge, or
any powder in stray grains f adhering to the sides
of the hole, becomes ignited, and disastrous conse-
quences succeed. For greater safety the needle
is often greased and covel'ed by a casing of
paper. To better avoid danger, copper needles are
used. Being more liable to bend than iron
needles, they are often made stouter. Fig. 147
shows a copper needle with an iron handle heated
and shrunk, or brazed on. It is about the best
sort of needle that can be used.

Fig. 148 represents a " pricker,'* used instead
of a needle, for being driven through the tamping
with a hammer after the tamping is finished. It
is next drawn out, something like a needle, and
leaves a perforation for putting in the train. The
pricker is more dangerous to use than the needle.
If made of copper, it is too easily bent.

* By employing aafety-fttse — to be noticed sliortly — instead
of the common squib, the risk alluded to is, so far, removed.

t This danger is avoided by using powder in cartridges.
Miners' common objection to cartridges is, that the powder
space below the tamping is not so completely filled as when
naked powder is used, and that the air spaces around the car-
tridge act as cushions against the force of the charge.

MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS. 139

Shooting-needles and prickers are usually from
18 inches to 3 feet long, and from J to f inch
diameter, tapering almost regularly to the point.
When made of iron they are worth from 4:d. to
6d. per lb., and if copper, about Is. 4:d. per lb.

In some continental mines a much safer plan is
adopted — that of putting a casing of large reeds
around the needle. This keeps it away from all
grains of powder and tamping ; and, after the
needle is drawn out, the reed casing remains be-
hind, to form a passage for the train.

In many places the use of needles and prickers
has been entirely abandoned in favour oisafety-fuse^
which is sold in coils of 24-feet lengths, resembling
a coil of plain cord. The fuse is made ordinarily
of tape, hemp-cord, yarn, gutta-percha, or metallic
covering, called the "countering," which forms
a small tube for containing a continuous core of
slow- burning powder -composition or priming.
A piece of this fuse is put into the hole instead of
a needle, and the tamping is rammed in after-
wards, one end of the fuse being outside of the
hole, and the other end penetrating the charge.
When the outside end is ignited, the fuse serves
as a slow train, burning at the rate of about
two feet per minute, and it can be cut off suffi-
ciently long to give the miner time to retire in
security after lighting it.

140 MINING TOOLS.

The main dangers with fiise are, the risk of its
being pressed into crevices and bruised, or cut
through with sharp angular stones in the tamp-
ing, and moreover of there being a defect in the
continuity of the powder core, or of its becoming
damp and wetted through in the hole, in all of
which cases there is danger of the fuse hanging
fire, and, by smouldering, it may rekindle the
unbumt portion, and unexpectedly explode the
charge after a long interval. We have known
this happen after fuse has hung fire nearly an
hour, but it almost exclusively applies to fiise
of inferior quality, which ought never to be used.
With good fuse, and especially when covered
with a waterproof coating of gutta-percha,
and having one or two touch-threads running
throughout the middle of the core, hardly any dan-
ger need be apprehended from this source if only
ordinary precaution be observed. Reliable safety-
fuse can be obtained in most mining localities
at an inexpensive rate ; and wherever this is
the case, needles and prickers, with their con-
comitant dangers, should be regarded as things
of the past.

The method of firing charges by electricity is
calculated to surpass all others for perfect safety.

Fig. 149 represents the ordinary " tamping
bar," used for driving some suitable substance.

MISCELLAl^EOUS TOOLS. 141

called "tamping," into blasting-holes after the
charge has been put in^ in order that the force
of the explosion may be pent up and act against
the side intended to be removed. The tamping
end of the bar is grooved on one side, to admit
of its clearing the needle or fuse lying along
the side of the hole. The other end is left plain
for the hand, or for being struck with a hammer.

When tamping can be put in sufficiently tight
by simply ramming the bar against it with the
hand, then, instead of leaving one end plain for
being struck — ramming by sledge blows being
dangerous in the estimation of many — another
tamping end is sometimes formed, as indicated
by the doited lines on Fig. 149.

Tamping bars are commonly made of iron, and
many accidents have happened in consequence of
their striking fire against quartzose matter which
they have come in contact with. To prevent
such accidents, tamping bars are sometimes faced
with copper, as at a. Fig. 150. This tamping
bar has a bit at one end for boring holes in any
frangible mineral, by impetus given with the
hand. Another form of tamping-end, sometimes
faced with copper, is shown at J, Fig. 151.

Bronze facings or tips, as shown at e, Fig. 151,
are also used to avoid the danger of striking fire.

Occasionally these tools are made wholly of

142 MINING TOOLS.

copper or bronze. Bronze has the advantage
of being harder and stiffer than copper.

Iron tamping bars cost from 2d. to 8d, per lb. ;
with copper or bronze tips, from 6d, to 9d. per
lb. ; and copper or bronze altogether, from Is. to
Is. 6d. per lb.

Many different persuasions are to be met
with regarding the material best suited for
the purpose of tamping, or, as it is sometimes
called, stemming. Baked or sun-dried clay
makes tamping of very good quality. Powdered
brick answers the purpose very well. The
boring-dust out of dry rising holes — generally
collected on the plate of a shovel — ^in many in-
stances makes excellent tamping. It is not
uncommon to find an accumulation of binding
argillaceous ground, possessing good properties for
tamping, occur in mines ; then the miners dig it
out as required. All tamping should be selected
to contain no particles likely to strike fire ; but
the cause of such casualty may lie in the sides of
the hole itself, and it is surprising that this is so
much lost sight of.

Under these circumstances is seen the advisa-
bility of using bronze or copper-faced tamping
bars, and of not hammering violently on the tamp-
ing until a little of it has first been gently pressed
down to cover over the charge, because the

MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS. 143

earlier blows on the tamping bar are most dan-
gerous in event of any spark occurring. A little
wadding, tow, paper, or a wooden plug, is some-
times put to lie against the charge before any
tamping is placed in the hole.

It is generally troublesome work to get tamp-
ing up into rising holes, having a rapid upward
inclination.

The hand sludger is occasionally made to assist,
by putting a little tamping into one end of the
tube, which is then placed in the hole' so that the
tamping can be forced out by the piston-rod.

Fig. 152 shows a " tamping case,'* which may
be used to greater advantage in such instances.
It is made of copper or brass, with a long handle,
and is passed over the end of the tamping bar.
"When this is done, the case — which has a slit for
clearing the fuse — is filled with tamping, and
pushed up into the bore-hole. The case is next
drawn back, so as to leave the tamping in front
of the bar, by which it can be pressed or ham-
mered up.

We have found j9/as^-<)/-/?am, used in a plastic
or semi-fluid state, make excellent tamping, first
putting a little dry plaster against the charge.
The plaster costs only about 2s. per cwt. in large
lots. It sets quickly, expands slightly by setting,
and requires no ramming, as it can be poured

144 MINING TOOLS.

into downward lioles^ and can be put, in a plastic
state, into rising holes, with a light copper scraper.

Fig. 153 shows a funnelled " powder-charger,'*
best made of copper. The powder is received by
the conical part, and passes through the pipe
— which may be screwed together in several
lengths — to the bottom of the hole without hang-
ing about the sides, thus avoiding a well-known
danger. A long stick fits inside for pushing
forward the powder when necessary. A common
saucepan handle is often used for charging.

Figs. 154 to 158 show ordinary forms of " gads,"
used for working jointy or cellular groimd, or rock
which has been fissured by blasting. They are
also much used for wedging down hard coal after
undercutting. Some apply the term gad to these
tools when they have a pointy and when they
have a chisel edge the term wedge is used.

Figs. 159 to 163 represent other forms of gads
and wedges used in various mining operations.
There is great multiplicity in the sizes of gads,
the length often varying from 3 inches to 2 feet.
Six inches to 1 foot are useful lengths.

They are sometimes made oi wrought-iron, with
a tongue of steel welded in to form a point, and
sometimes the striking -end is faced with steel.
Very often, for the sake of durability, they are
made of steel altogether. Cast-steel borers, which

MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS. 145

have been worn short, are often used for making
gads in hard-ground mines, and, in order to stand
well, they should be carefully annealed, as they
are submitted to cross strains by side blows from
the sledge, for the purpose of loosening them or
the adjacent rock.

Fig. 164 represents a Saxon gad, having near
the middle an eye, which is used by Saxon miners
for threading several gads together on a sling, to
facilitate carrying them to and from work, or for
putting in a light helve to form a temporary
handle. This has but little recommendation to a
British miner, considering that the eye weakens
the gad. Fig. 165 shows a gad used by Mexican
miners. It is round in cross section.

In working some sorts of " jointy " or " vuggy **
ground, gads are of great importance, and each
miner sometimes carries over a dozen of them to his
work daily. The best sort of gad for this purpose
is made of shear-steel, and to cleave well it should
approximate the shape of Fig. 154. It is generally
about lib. weight, and 6 inches long by IJ x -|,
or 1 X i inch, in the largest part, tapering to a
point.

Iron gads with steel points are chiefly used in
collieries. Their lengths range from 6 inches to
2 feet — a very common length being 12 inches,
and weighing about 31bs. — the greatest thickness

H

146 MINING TOOLS.

being about 1 inch, and the greatest breadth about
If inches. These wedges resemble Figs. 154 and
155 in shape, and one smith with a striker can
make about two and a half dozens per day. The
collier's wedge-sledge, noticed on p. 66, is specially
adapted for driving these wedges (as is often
necessary) after their ends have gone in flush
with the face, because the panes of the sledge are
small enough to follow the wedges.

Steeled iron wedges cost from 2^d. to 8d. per
lb., and solid steel wedges from 4:d. to 5d. per lb.
Gads are usually blunted more than pick-points,
and therefore they take a little longer time to
sharpen. They are tempered in the same manner
as picks. In some collieries the remnants of old
iron wedges are collected in when new ones are
supplied; and when sufficient numbers have
been accumulated they are faggoted under a
steam or other hammer into bars for new wedges.

Gads and wedges are very liable to get buried
beneath the coal, rubbish, ore, or attle under-
ground, unless carefully looked after. A great
deal of steel often gets lost in this way, and it has
been the chief reason for introducing into many
mines the system of charging miners for all the
steel they wear away or lose.

In some collieries, where wedges have to be
driven into a yielding substance, or under a soft

MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS. 147

top, a pair of thin plates, called " clamps," are
first let into the ground, to ajfford a larger bearing
when the wedge is driven between, as shown by
Fig. 166:

The "plug and feather*' arrangement, shown
by Fig. 167, is very useful for wedging off large
blocks of mineral. A hole is first bored, and
after the two inverted wedges, «, a, with circular
backs, are placed in it, the driving wedge, or plug,
is driven between to detach the mass. Plugs and
feathers lessen the friction of wedging. They
are occasionally found useful for benching down
long faces of coal, and are of constant use in
some quarries for breaking off large pieces of
stone, by arranging several of them along the line
of intended fracture. In the Box stone-quarries,
two iron wedges called " chips " — see x, Fig. 167
— are used instead of the feathers, «, a, and are
placed, with the thin edges outward, in a recess
cut to receive them, so that a wedge may enter
between.

It is to be hoped that the time is rapidly
approaching when a very large part of the labour
of driving gads and wedges will be superseded by
the use of the excellent hydraulic machines now
being introduced into collieries by Mr. J. Grafton
Jones — ^well known in connection with his patent
coal-cutting machinery — and other inventors.

h2

148 IHNING TOOLS.

These machines fit into holes previously bored
for them, and they force down the coal by pistons
or wedges acting under very great hydrostatic
pressure, produced by a small hand-pump. The
entire apparatus is quite portable, and where the
occurrence of fire-damp in collieries makes the
use of blasting-powder dangerous, these machines
are destined to acquire a highly important sub-
stitutionary value. They are also applicable to
many other branches of mining.

Mr. Davies, of Crumlin, has invented a machine
to act upon the same principle, which, by a kind
of flexible or jointed arrangement, will relieve
itself of undue strains when at work, and accom-
modate itself to a crooked hole.

We now turn to notice some tools which are of
special utility for advantageously working the
well-known Bathstone at the quarries of Box (and
other places), where, instead of removing the over-
burden, the quarrying is carried on underground,
from adits or shafts, without disturbing the
cultivated surface.

The "jaddingpick," illustrated by Fig. 168,
serves for cutting in long and deep holings, juds,
or "jads," for the purpose of detaching large
blocks of stone from their natural beds.. The
jads specified were formerly made in vertical as
well as horizontal directions. Kot long since,

MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS. 149

however, an improved plan of aatoing the vertical
^-or, as they are termed, " upright " — jads be-
came generally adopted ; but for working in the
first cut horizontally in order to free one side —
generally the top surface — of the block, and
thereby to provide room for the saws afterwards to
commence severing the other sides, nothing has
superseded the use of j adding picks. They are
made in sets of about three or four, with helves
ranging from 3 to 5 and even 6 feet in length, so
that the reach of the pick may be accommodated
to the increased depth of the jad as it advances ;
and to enable the pick-point to catch properly
under the same circumstances — ^besides having to
reach into the comers — the head is not fixed on
square, but obliquely y with the helve, as appears in
Fig. 168. Wedges or iron dogs, driven in be-
tween the helve and the ends of the eye, assist in
maintaining the proper obliquity of the head.
That stem which forms an obtuse angle with the
helve is called the "spreading" end, while the
other is called the " coming " end ; and the
longer the handle — which implies the deeper
the jad — the more the spreading is required to
be, in order that the tip may have a chance to
penetrate properly. For example, with a handle
5 feet long, a line square from helve, set off through
the middle of the eye, would leave one tip about 2 J

150 MINING TOOLS.

inches on the inner side of it^ and the other tip
about 2^ inches on the outer side. This is called
6 inches of spreading. With a helve of about 3f
feet long the spreading would be, say, 3 J inches,
and with a 3-feet helve about IJ inches. The
feature here particularised prevents one tip from
being employed. It is only the spreading stem
that is usable in the long-handled picks, since it
is impossible to get the opposite tip to even touch
the face of the jad.

The tips have chisel-edges |th to Aths of an inch
wide.* They are sharpened with a fine file, being
bevelled off from the. inner side, like the edge of a
common adze. They are not sent to the smith's
shop oftener than about once a fortnight, as the
stone operated upon is very mild for working.
For the shorter helves — say 3 feet — the heads
may be 6 or Tibs, weight ; but for longer helves
the weight usually diminishes to but little over
half as much, seeing they are more fatiguing to
use. Smiths in the locality supply 61b. heads for
about 3s. each, and re-steel for 4id, per tip.

A pick of the same character, known in these quarries as a
" holing pick," has its spreading- tip about fths of an inch wide,
for cutting recesses just of the right size for receiving the two
chips, Xj Fig. 167, in cases of wedging. Sometimes, instead of
this pick, the quarrymen prefer to use a " holing iron," which
consists of a bar of 1-inch round iron, with a crutch handle at
one end, and a steel chisel-edge about Jths of an inch wide at
the other extremity.

MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS. 151

Horizontal jads are constantly being cut in
these quarries close under the roof at the faces of
the advancing headings, which are 15 feet wide
and upwards, separated by pillars. After pene-
trating a depth of about 30 inches, a course of
stone some 9 or 12 inches thick is " rapped in '*
— wedged down — from over the jad to increase its
width, and then it is worked in another 30 inches, or
so, deeper, making in all 5 feet, or sometimes more.

It is interesting to observe a Box quarryman
cutting in a jad under the roof with a pick having
a handle 5 or 6 feet long, and striking each blow
with the nicest precision, thereby forming a large
surface as even as the top of a table. Such a man
will do an average day's work of 13 superficial
feet of jadding, and with his long- handled pick
will deal out about 26 effective blows per minute.
Accustomed to the work, perhaps from boyhood,
he can cut in very deep jads, not more than 4
inches wide, with surprising evenness.

For clearing out the comers of jads, or for
widening them a little inwards, when they tend
to cut out and get somewhat too narrow for the
fair working of the pick, the jadding iron. Fig.
168a, is found a very serviceable tool. It is
made about 7 feet long, out of, say, 1-inch round
iron, and is furnished with a steel chisel-edge
about J inch wide, which is very effective in

152 MINING TOOLS.

chipping away the stone when driven against it
by smartly-directed strokes. It is difficult to cut
jads deeper than 5 or 6 feet with picks, but a
depth of 7 feet and upwards can be more readily
accomplished with the j adding iron, which is
directed by hand so as to deal out a succession
of strokes against the face of the jad. To pene-
trate this extra depth is sometimes very desirable
for working out large blocks, or it may be for
making the jad reach in to a suspected joint
traversing the beds. Jadding irons were found
to possess great adaptableness for cutting the
upright jads formerly required. The jad was
commenced with a pick, and continued with
jadding irons until several feet deep. A man
would thus do an average of 12 superficial feet
of jadding per day, wasting only a width of
about 4 inches of stone. Extravagant this may
appear when compared with the kerf of a saw-
cut; but the only marvel is that deep cuts so
extremely narrow could be at all worked in by
jadding, and that so evenly (as is testified by old
pillars) that were it not for the tool marks the
surfaces would be hardly distinguishable from
those that are sawn. For deep horizontal cutting
the jadding iron is greased to slide freely over
a pick-helve, which is laid across under it. More
than one bed at a time is worked in the quarries

MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS. 153

under notice^ and thus the workings are some-
what lofty. The sawn pillars are mostly rect-
angular and regular^ but their position is to some
extent regulated by the occurrence of joints, or
disturbances, as well as any occasional difference
in the quality of the stone at certain parts. When
the face of any heading from which the stone
is to be worked away has been properly jadded
under the roof, the side saw-cuts are proceeded
with. A narrow block between two vertical cuts
— generally made at one side, unless some flaw in
the stone or some question of sizes would dictate
anothd^ place — ^is afterwards wedged up from one
of the bedding-joints, for the purpose of enabling
the sawyer to get forward for sawing the back cut
parallel with the face. This being done, and the
ends and top being free, the principal block
easily parts from its lower bedding-joint, and is
drawn out by a crab or crane.*

Blocks thus obtained from the working faces
often need a little squaring or trimming, which
is effected by the use of a " stone axe." The head
of one is illustrated by Fig. 169. It is furnished

* It by no means appears palpable that some elements of
this system of excavation might not be successfully applied for
the working of hard coal, and other minerals which occur in
thick deposits. Lewis holes are frequently used in these quarries
for securing snatch-blocks to the pillars in order to draw out
blocks of stone from the different headings.

H 3

164 MINING TOOLS.

with an oval handle from about 26 to 30 inches
in length. The head is of iron, with steel in-
serted at each edge. Smiths in the neighbour-
hood supply them at about lOd. per lb., a 121b.
head costing 9s. or 10s. The edges are sharpened
on a piece of pennant grit, and now and then
they need to be draim out by a smith, his com-
mon charge for doing so being 4^. They are
tempered to about brown or purple.

In the same quarries the wedges employed
with the chips, x, Fig. 167, are commonly about
18 inches long, in shape approaching that of Fig.
160, but with less taper from near the j^int to
the striking- end, where the size is about 3 iuches
wide by li inches thick.

What is termed a " driving iron," used for
rapping or wedging down from over the jad, as
before explained, is simply a bar of round iron about
If inches diameter and 3 feet long, having a few
inches at one end flattened out to a chisel shape
for being driven like a wedge.

The sledges employed with these tools and for
general purposes belong chiefly to the bully pat-
tern, with heads varying from 8 to 201bs., accord-
ing to the use for which they are intended.

Passing from the class of quarrying tools
which have engaged our notice, we may now
glance at some for other purposes.

MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS. 155

Figs. 170 and 170a represent two "pickers,"
and Fig. 170b represents a " poker." These tools
are used in Saxony and in parts of Cornwall for
working in jointy ground, and in some thin hard
veins. They are very useful for getting between
the sides of narrow clay joints, for clearing them
out, to give side shots a better chance for blast-
ing. Such tools are commonly employed in
Saxony, but their use is, in this country, almost
confined to the St. Just district. Some of the
miners in that part use them very dexterously,
and a St. Just miner can often be distinguished
from his fellow-countrymen by a horny blister
mark on the back of the little finger on his
left hand, caused by holding it under the haft of
the picker, or poker, for keeping up the point.
These tools are generally made out of |-inch
round iron, with steel tips. The picker is
flattened out to form a blade about 1 foot long.
The remaining part is left round to form the haft.
The whole length rarely exceeds 30 inches, the
average being about 26 inches. They are
sharpened to a point, or narrow chisel-edge, and
tempered in the same way as picks. They are
held by the miners in one hand, and struck by a
hammer held in the other hand. "When they
have entered they are often used like short levers
for loosening or clearing out the ground.

156 MINING TOOLS.

Fig. 171 shows a "set" or "moil/' used for
cutting ground where it requires to be dpne
evenly, such as in the case of cutting " hitches/*
or preparing seatings for pit work, or forming a
regular bedding for supporting a wedging-curb
for tubbing shafts, and for various kindred opera-
tions. Sometimes the tip is sharpened to a
diamond-point, or to a circular form, to suit parti-
cular cases. Most usually it is shaped like the
tip of a poker, or picker. When intended for
single-hand use, sets do not often exceed 41bs.
weight. If much heavier than this they are
called double-hand, sets, and are the more useful
size. They are often made of cast-steel borer-
bars, or of a bar of wrought-iron with a tongue
of steel welded in to form the cutting part.
After sharpening they are hardened and tem- *
pered like ordinary borers.

Sets of this character, with chisel tips, are in
many cases used for working the native copper
accumulations of Lake Superior.

Fig. 172 represents an iron " socket-bar '' or
" beche," used for drawing cartridges, or broken
drills, out of ordinary bore-holes by wedging the
socket over them.

Fig. 173 represents a " pointed crowbar.'*
Fig. 174 is a " pinch-bar," with a chisel-edge on
one extremity. Sometimes one end of these bars

MISCBLLANEOUS TOOLS. 167

is left blunt for striking on. Fig. 176 shows
another pointed crowbar. Fig. 176 is called a
"crook-bar/* and is also pointed at one end.
When the ends are shaped as at s, with A points,
it forms a " timber-bar," useful for moving heavy
timber. In this case the bend of one end is usually
opposite to that of the other, and one bend is
somewhat shorter than the other. Fig. 177 is a
crook-bar, occasionally used for dragging stones
and lumps out of loose ground.

Bars are very useful in mining operations for
levering out ground, and for splitting rocks
traversed by cleavage planes. They are also
useful, in some instances, for forcing down coal
after imdercutting, and are constantly employed
for moving or purchasing heavy weights.

Bars are nearly always made of round iron with
steel at the extremities, welded on by a splice or
split weld. They require occasional sharpening,
and are tempered like borers — generally to a blue
tinge. For lightness they are now and then
made hollow. They usually range in length
from 3 to 6 feet. A convenient size is 4 feet or
4 J feet long and 1| to IJ inch diameter for ordi-
nary work. They are worth about from 12s. to
16s. per cwt., and each bar weighs from 12 to
241bs.

Fig. 178 shows a " claw- bar,'' well suited for

158 MINING TOOLS.

drawing out bolts or spikes, and for purchasing
weights. A light bar of this description, about
4 feet long and 1 inch diameter, is very handy
for repairing tramroads. The pointed ends of
bars are often slightly bent, to facilitate getting a
pinch and levering in certain positions. The
end, dy is called a " dibber," for making holes.

Figs. 179 and 180 represent two sorts of bars
used in some foreign mines. Round crowbars,
with points and chisel-edges, are also used abroad,
as are claw and crook bars.

Fig. 181 shows a tramplate or rail " scraper,"
used for clearing off dirt from tramroads. In
some cases one extremity is formed as at a.

Fig. 182 represents a " push-pick," sometimes
used for working in soft or clayey ground. It
consists of a thin iron palm oi fluke-platCy with
steel around the front edges, resembling a flat
shovel blade, and has ears for receiving a long
and straight wooden handle.

Fig. 183 represents a similar tool, with an iron
handle, and a long tongue tapering to a chisel-
edge, which is formed of steel, and ground nearly
as sharp as the edge of an axe. These tools
are useful for cutting out corners in driving
through soft ground, for making headway for
breasting boards, and for clearing the course for
laths or laggings, &c.

MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS. 159

Fig. 184 represents a tool called a " spiker/'
which is used in some collieries for clearing out
places for the cleats or laggings, posts, bars, or
caps, &c,, in places where a pick will not work
or reach. The spiker is made of wrought-iron,
with a steel tongue welded in to form the point.
It seldom requires sharpening, but when it
does it is treated just like a pick-point. Some-
times a boiv handle is made instead of a crutch
handle.

Fig. 185 represents a "bull-crook/* used in
some collieries, principally by hitchers and banks-
men, for dragging the boxes or trains.

Fig. 186 represents the ordinary two-prong
*' pitchfork," which miners often prefer to use,
instead of a shovel, for filling or removing lumps
of tough clay which have been cut with the
grafting tool or spade. The pitchfork is easily
stuck into lumps of clay, so that they may be
moved as desired, and it can be drawn out again
without the clay sticking about it, as is often the
case with the use of a shovel for the same work.
A medium-sized two-pronged cast-steel pitchfork
with 5-feet haft or handle costs about Ss.

Fig. 187 represents an " axe-mattock,'' which
is sometimes used for working or driving through
clay ground, growan, soft elvan, or other loose
or soft accumulations. The head consists of an

160 MINING TOOLS.

eye and two blades, one standing like a hoe, and
the other at right angles to it, like the blade of
an axe. The ordinary-sized head weighs about
51bs. It is mounted on a helve like a common
pick. One smith and striker will make five of
these heads per day. The edges are generally
sharpened — which is seldom required — by filing
them when hot, and they are tempered to about
blue. Fig. 187a shows a top view of the head.

Fig. 188 represents the head of a " pick-mat-
tock,*' used for a similar purpose. The pick stem
is useful for loosening harder portions of the
ground. When the blade edge is turned parallel
with the helve it is called a "pickaxe.'' Axe
and pick mattocks from 6 to 81bs. each can be
bought from tool-makers at about 40s. per cwt.

Fig. 189 represents a " mortise chisel," often
found useful for framing timber work. Miners'
mortise chisels are made with iron handles, with
steel welded on the back of the blade to form the
cutting edge, which is usually from f to 1 inch
wide, and tempered straw colour. Sometimes
they are made with a socket for receiving a
wooden handle, as in Fig. 190. This is the sort
always sold by ironmongers at frpm Is. to Is. Qd.
each. Socket-firmer chisels — ^Fig. 191 — are used
for wide mortises. 1 and 1^ inch are useful sizes,
and cost from IQd. to Is. 3(f. each.

MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS. 161

Fig. 192 represents a miner's " screw-auger/'
mucli used for boring pin or bolt holes through
timber. The cross handle of wood is fastened
by driving it on the flattened dagger at the top
of the auger-stem, which is afterwards clenched,
as shown ; or by forming a round eye on the top
of the auger- stem, so that the handle can be
driven into it. A more durable auger, but less
free for cutting, known as the " barrel '' or " shell
auger," is shown by Fig. 193. Augers of this
type, with long shells, are known as " treenail ''
or " long-pod augers."

A gouge. Fig. 194, is used with these augers
for cutting out a circular bit of wood, where
a hole is to be commenced, to enable the bit
to catch. Augers are drawn out of the holes at
intervals when boring, to clear out the chips
or dust. The cutting part is of steel, and the
stem of iron. They are generally bought ready
made. The most convenient sizes for mining
purposes are f, f, 1, and 1| inch diameter of
bit. They cost from %d, to Is. 6c?. each, without
handles. Eyed augers 2d. to 6c?. extra. The
cutting edge is occasionally sharpened with a dead
smooth file, or a thin hone stone.

Fig. 195 shows the "skewnose auger," often
used by platelayers.

When required for a deep reach, the stem of an

162 MINING TOOLS.

auger may be cut off, and a piece welded in to
make it of any required length.

Fig. 195a shows a "pad -handle/' used for
receiving augers of different types and sizes,
either of which fits into a metal socket, where it
is secured by a set- pin at the side, as shown.

A strong "spike -gimlet," which is a small
kind of barrel -auger with a screw tip, is also a
very useful tool. A strongly-made one, ^-inch
size, costs about 9^.

Fig. 196 shows a form of "rake" which is
used in many collieries and mines for separating
lumps from the small stuff, and sometimes for
facilitating the picking out of rubbish or impurities
from mineral heaps. The rake illustrated has a
wooden cross-piece, to which teeth of iron or
steel are fastened, and a wooden handle is wedged
in the middle. Sometimes the cross-piece is made
of iron, through which the teeth are riveted, and
provided with a socket to receive the handle. These
are best known as " gravel rakes," and cost from
2|^. to Sd, per tooth. The length of the teeth,
and their distance apart, vary according to the
character of the work required to be done.

Fig. 197 shows a "brace-key," or "tiller,"
which consists of two iron handles screwed to-
gether in opposite ways, so as to clip between
them the rods used in deep borings. When the

MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS. 163

handles are screwed on firmly they form two
levers for turning the rods as required, the top
length of rod being furnished with a swivel.
Sometimes the levers are welded to a short inter-
mediate length of boring-rod. Their extremities
are occasionally turned up at right angles.

Instead of tillers of this class, some boring-
raasters prefer to employ a wooden lever or hand-
spike, which passes through an eye in the rods
just below the swivel-joint. The reason is that
with the concussion of the rods iron tillers are
more jarring to the hands.

Fig. 198 represents the " wrench " in common
use for screwing and unscrewing rods employed
in sinking bore-holes.

Figs. 199 and 200 represent the " grips,'' or
" lifting-dogs,'' which are fastened to the end of
a rope or chain, and used for letting down or
drawing up boring-rods, by catching them under
the collar at the joints of the rods. Other forms
of grips are used, and sometimes a simple lashing
chain is made to answer the same purpose. Per-
haps with screw joints the best plan is to use a
" drawing-cap," which is a strong iron loop or eye
with a socket having an internal thread, so that it
can be screwed on the rods and drawn up by a hook.

Fig. 201 represents the "nipping -fork," or
"tiger," often used for temporarily supporting

164 MINING TOOLS.

the train of rods while they are being let into,
or drawn out of, a bore-hole. The joints of the
rods are too large to pass through the nipping-fork,
80 that when it is placed over the bore-hole the
rods cannot run back if one of the joints is resting
upon it. In case of an unexpected breakage the
nipping-fork is often valuable in preventing the
rods from falling down the bore-hole. It is also
used as a wrench.

Fig. 202 is a form of " wad-coil," now and then
employed for drawing loose stones out of bore-
holes, such stones being clipped within the coils.

Fig. 202a shows a "worm," used like worm-
augers, for loosening some tough clays at the bot-
toms of bore-holes. A similar tool, called a
"coil-drag," is in some instances employed for
drawing up the bottom part of broken rods from
bore-holes or pumps. The coil-drag is welded or
screwed on to a length of rods, and lowered down
to the broken portion. It is then turned around
several times until it entwines itself around the
broken portion sufficiently tight to draw it up.
The coils are often made of a larger diameter at the
lower part than upwards, and frequently the tool
is made out of a square bar of iron bent dia-
gonally, in order that the angular edge running
inside the spiral may grip the tighter. It is
proper to remark that in Figs. 202 and 202a the

MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS. 165

way in which the coils are represented to twist is
reverse to what it should be. They should twist
fche same way as the joint-screws, otherwise there
would be a tendency to unscrewing in use.

Fig. 203 represents a " claw " used for the
same purpose. It is lowered into the bore-hole,
or pipes, to get below a joint in the broken rods, and
is then turned round, so that the claw may get a
holdfast under the collar, or knob.

Tools working on these principles are known
amongst many miners as " German keys.*'

Fig. 204 represents the "bell-screw," or "screw-
socket,'* which is also used for drawing broken
rods. It is generally furnished with an internal
screw tapering with the socket. When let down
over a broken rod the socket is designed to
embrace the top of the same, so that after a few
turns the thread will often make sufficient bite to
draw up the rods. The accompanying torsional
strain is objectionable on some occasions.

Sometimes a plain socket is filled with wax, and
lowered down to take an impression of the top of
the unrecovered broken rods, when the nature of
the fracture is not shown with sufficient plainness
by the recovered portion. Information thus
derived may be useful for designing a special tool
for raising the rods which have broken off.

By using similar sockets filled with tough clay,

166 MINING TOOLS.

fragments of broken bits, by embedding them-
selves within it, have been easily removed.

Fig. 205 represents a "grappel," or "trap,"
used in connection with exploratory bore-holes,
in which the borers used are constructed with
narrow bits arranged on a cylinder or ring, so as
to make an annular cut, with a solid core^ column^
or carrot in the centre. The tool illustrated is
used for cutting off and raising the carrots. It
consists of a cylinder with several teeth or pauls^
hinged around the bottom, and forced towards the
centre by springs. After the boring-bit is taken
off from the rods, this tool is fastened on instead,
and dropped down the bore-hole. The teeth slip
over the carrot nearly down to its base. The
rods are next slightly moved up and down in quick
succession, so that the teeth may nibble notches
into the side of the carrot, as shown. A sudden
upward jerk is afterwards given to the rods, and
the carrot snaps off near the bottom. Being thus
detached, and within the cylinder, it can be raised
to the surface, as the teeth at the bottom close
inwards, and prevent the carrot from dropping
out. A heavy iron ring is sometimes employed,
instead of the springs, for pressing the teeth
inwards. In other cases the springs are
fastened to the outside of the cylinder — Wholes
being made through the side so that the teeth may

MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS. 167

be pressed Inwards — and a wedge on tte outside
of the cylinder is used for snapping off the carrot.
This tool is revolved — turned like an auger — so
that the teeth cut away a neck all around the
bottom of the carrot, where it is intended to be
broken.

When carrots are cut in a bore -hole, they
afford an excellent opportunity for ascertaining
with the greatest certainty the mineral and fossil
characters of the strata which are passed through ;
and they oftep reveal lines of stratification, so
that the true power or thickness of any stratum
can be determined by multiplying its carrot length,
or vertical measurement, by the cosine of the angle
of its dip from the horizon. This contrivance
then is a kind of icitness-trap, as we have heard it
called, which brings to view the soundest and
most reliable testimony regarding the strata which
have been pierced by the bore-hole.

A similarly-designed tool, called a " bell-box,"
with pauls. Fig. 206, is occasionally used for
passing over the joints or projections on broken
rods for drawing them up. It is not unusual to
find bell-screws fastened to the ends of forked rods,
after the manner of the bell-box here noticed.
The hole then passes completely through the
socket portion, so that, if needful, the top of the
broken rod may pass up between the fork, in

168 MINING TOOLS.

order that the Internal screw may get a holdfast
around the first joint below the fracture.

Fig. 207 shows a " stud-block/' which is used
for suspending tube or pipe linings for bore-holes,
either for putting them down or drawing them
up. It consists of a block made to fit inside the
end of the tube, and attached to the rods. In
the side of the block are fixed iron studs for
slipping into slits cut in the side of the tube,
like a bayonet-Joint, so that it may be suspended
as illustrated.

Fig. 208 shows a " spring-dart," used for the
same purpose.

Sometimes a conical plug with a screw cut
around the outside for tightening itself in the
upper end of the tube is used for raising and
lowering the linings.

" Heating-tongs " resemble a smith's tongs,
but they are made circular to clip around the
tube lining of a bore-hole. The part which em-
braces the tube is made very stout to retain heat
for melting solder at joints, for uniting some
sorts of tubing, by making the stout part red-hot,
and causing it to surround the joint. The
" heater,'' which is a heavy bar of iron, dropped
hot down the tube by a chain, is used for the
same purpose.

Occasionally it has been found necessary to cut

MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS. 169

off the tube linings in bore-holes. This is done
by fastening on the end of the rods a taper
block pointing downwards. A serrated tooth pro-
jects by the force of a stiff spring from the side
of the block. When this contrivance is forced
down inside the tube, the tooth retires, and when
opposite the required point the rods are. turned
around by a lever, so that the tooth, by pressing
tightly against the inside of the tube, cuts a
groove all around and severs it.

Fig. 209 represents the " scraper," or
" spreader,'* used for spreading ore when it is
being dressed on the' frame-table and racks.
Sometimes the pattern is like the "solid half-
moon hoe," as at a. The scraper is like a broad
turnip-hoe, fitted with a long handle. It may be
simply a piece of wood nailed across one end of a
long handle.

Fig. 210 shows the "broom," used for moving
ore about when it is undergoing dressing in the
tye and other apparatus. It is a little smaller
than the common broom. The broom is generally
made of hcatlu Birch would be too rough.

Fig. 210a represents the "horn," used for
washing and cleaning the dressing-frames and
tables. In the case of ^/^^-dressing, a thin surface
of ore left in the frame is washed down into a
sort of chest, called a " cover," by water dipped

I

170 MINING TOOLS.

up in the horn. The handle, about 5 feet long,
is fitted and wedged to a bullock's horn, which
is cut off at the point and plugged up with wood
to form a wat«r-tight bottom.

The " limp/* used for scraping mineral off a
jigging-sieve,^ is a piece of board, or sheet-iron,
about a foot wide, and formed semicircularly,
resembling half the head of a small cask.

The plate of a " bulling^hbvel,'* also used in
ore-dressing, is shown by Fig. 211.

Fig. 212 represents a " dipper," or " dip-
scuttle,'' or " bail," used for dipping water out of
a shallow place. The scoop part is generally
made of elm board. The sides and back are high
for holding the water. Sometimes a piece of
board is nailed on the top, at the back, to prevent
the water from spilling over. The long wooden
handle, passing through the scoop, enables it to be
used like a shovel.

Fig, 213 represents a platelayer's "keying-
hammer," used for driving keys in the chairs
of tramroads and railways, for securing the rails.
One stump is made half-round for this purpose.
In some instances both stumps are the same.

Fig. 214 represents a " beater," or " beating-
pick." The cross-piece on one tip is used for
packing in ballast under the sleepers of tramroads
or railways. A similar tool, made stouter, but

MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS. 171

Without the pointed stem — Le., with the beating
stem only — is known under the name of a
" packing-tool."

Fig. 215 represents a " rail-gauge," employed
in laying or repairing railroads or tramways, for
showing the proper gauge or width between the
rails. Fig. 216 is another, with two discs on a
round bar, faced in a lathe, and termed a " rolling
rail-gauge."

Fig. 217 represents a steel "punch," and
Fig. 218 a steel " set," used in some instances
for laying rails. Both are furnished with iron
handles, made of light rod-iron, bent around the
tool. A platelayer's "driver," or "drifting-
punch,'* is a long form of punch resembling
Fig. 217, but with a, flat end suitable for driving
out keys, &c.

Fig. 219 illustrates a " rail-cramp," used for
bending rails and tramplates for going round
curves. A spanner, shown, is used for turning
the nut working on the ram, after a rail is
adjusted in the claws. About 6d. per lb. is the
value of cramps of this kind.

Fig. 220 represents a " bottle-jack," which is
very useful in mines for raising heavy weights,
and, in some instances, for supporting timber
undergoing renewal in heavy ground, or for
forcing the pieces into their proper positions.

I 2

172 MINING TOOLS.

Fig. 221 shows the extensively-used " traversing*-
jack/*

A boitle-jack to lift 6 tons costs about £3. A
good traversing-jack to lift the same weight may
be bought for about £7.

Very serviceable hydraulic lifting-jacks can
now be obtained. One to lift 6 tons, weight not
exceeding 701bs., costs about £10. If traversing,
about £3 extra.

Fig. 222 represents a " lewis/* which is a con-
trivance made of iron, and often used in raising
or drawing heavy weights, particularly in quarries.
The two side-pieces, which are made with taper,
are dropped into a dovetaU recess, formed in
the piece to be removed. The ring-tongue is
then put in between, and a bolt is afterwards
passed through all three of the pieces, and
secured by a small split-key inserted through its
point. If the lifting-gear is next attached to
the ring for raising the piece, the lewis will
obtain a firm hold by wedging itself tightly in
the dovetail.

Fig. 223 represents a "nipper,** of frequent
use in quarries for raising blocks of stone. The
fangs open and close on a hinge, like a scissors
joint, so that the points may span over a block
of stone, and catch in two small notches cut in
opposite sides. When the hoisting-gear is

MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS. 173

applied to the ring, the bridle-chains make the
nipper clip firmly in the notches, and the heavier
the weight the more tightly it holds. A very
similar contrivance is used for raising timber.

Fig. 224 represents a " cant-hook," found con-
venient for rolling over timber by means of a
lever or handspike passed through the ring.
Sometimes two of them are strung on a chain,
and used instead of a nipper. These, made some-
what stronger in the hook, are known as " quarry-
dogs " or " crane-hooks."

The last tool we shall notice Is the " marline-
spike," Fig. 225, used for rope splicing. It
consists of a round pointed piece of steel, called
the " tusk," fixed in a stout wooden handle. A
tusk about 6 inches long, by f inch diameter in
the largest place, is a very convenient size ; but
much larger ones are used for splicing very stout
ropes, such as capstan ropes. Sometimes the
marline- spike is made entirely of steel, or iron
steeled in the point, with a hole in the head for pass-
ing through a string, or with a pear-shaped loop
to form the handle. In other cases the head of the
spike is turned off at right angles to form a handle.

Besides understanding how to tie good hitches
and knots, every miner should be able to splice
well. A short splice is a very useful one ; but when
the rope has to run through tackle or blocks a
long splice is necessary.

HELYES OE HANDLES.

Many of the tools which we have noticed are
furnished with wooden helves^ handles, shafts, or
sticJiSy as they are variously termed. A tool helve
ought to combine three qualities, viz. : — tough-
ness, with moderate hardness; slight elasticity;
and lightness. It should also be sufficiently large
to enable it to be held firmly in the hand without
cramping the muscles. Ash- wood complies with
these conditions better than any other material
which is easily procured in this country.

Hickory — a valuable American nut-bearing
tree, of various kinds, similar to the walnut tribe
— ^is largely used for helving tools of American
manufacture, many of which find their way into
English markets.* This wood makes very good
helves, and is commonly considered to be particu-
larly suited for axes. Some of it is peculiar for the

• Hickory is very much employed in tlie manufacture of
handspikes — imported from North America, ready made, and
weighing about 20lhs. each— fishing-rods, shafts, &c.

HELVES OR HANDLES. 175

lozenge-shape structure of its tissue. For most
purposes, however, good ash helves are unsur-
passed.*

The holding surface of a helve has all its angles
rounded off smoothly, so that it may be used
without galling the hands. The best shape is
either oval or round, in cross section. Oval is the
better shape for picks, sledges, and axes, because
it gives the hand greater control over the directing
of the tool; but in the case of shovels round is
generally preferred for sliding and turning in the
hand. When shovel helves of short or medium
length are used, the crutch, or open handle, is
serviceable, not only for affording a large pressing
surface to one hand, but also for controlling the
turning of the helve in the other, and for pre-
venting any capsizing of the plate when filled ;
but when long helves are used — as with the
Devon shovel — their high inclination enables the
helves themselves to afford a large pressing
surface, and the weight upon the plate is so much
below the level of the hands that it has hardly
any tendency to capsize ; hence the ordinary grasp
of the hand gives sufficient control over the turn-
ing of the helve when needed. Yery common oval

* The following is the order of arrangement usually cuicepted
as showing the relative values of a few sorts of wood for elas-
ticity : — ash, hazel, hickory, lancewood, yew.

176 MINING TOOLS.

sizes are — ^for small tools, 1^ incli x f inch ; for
medium size, If x 1^ ; and for large size. If x 1^
or If. The length is not usually less than 18
inches, or more than 36 inches ; 24 to 30 inches
being most common.

Round helves may be said to vary from 1| to
If inch average diameter ; If inch being a very
convenient size.

Long shovel helves are commonly from 4 to 6
feet long, and short ones about 30 inches long,
except where required for use in confined places.

Short-helved shovels are usually bought with
helves fitted to them.

Spare shovel helves are often kept in mine
stores, although it is comparatively seldom that
one has to be replaced ; but the helves of sledges,
and of picks especially, are found to break so
often that a large stock is usually kept at the
mine for replacing broken ones.* Fig. 226 repre-
sents a pick helve, and a sledge helve is shown
by Fig. 227.

Both sorts are generally split out of round logs
of timber into shapes represented by Figs. 228
and 229. They are next rough heton by an axe
into the shapes represented by Figs. 230 and 231.

* Axe handles do not often break. They are usually replaced
by a handle made out of a pick-helve, when they require to be
renewed at mines.

HELVES OR HANDLES. 177

Afterwards they are dressed hy drawing-kniyes,
spokeshaves, or planes, until they assume the
forms shown by Figs. 226 and 227. In con-
sequence of the feathered part, a, J, occurring in
a pick helve, there is some extent of timber wasted
in forming the haft, J, (?, as will be seen by
reference to Fig. 226, where the dotted lines show
the outline of the piece of timber from which the
helve is made. It will be seen this does not
apply to sledge helves. Fig. 227, unless they
are formed with a feather, as in Figs. 24 and 28,
which is not usual. The sizes of helves are, to a
certain degree, regulated by the sizes of the eyes,
into which they must fit tightly. This is always
the case with the feather of a pick helve, which
ought to taper as represented in Fig. 226, so
that the helve might be taken from a worn-out
or broken tool, and used in another, or refitted in
cases of wincing. As a rule, it is about 1 to IJ
inch thick, by 3 to 4 inches wide, in the largest
part of the feather.

A helve should be fitted into the eye of any
tool as nicely as possible, by driving it partly in
and withdrawing it a few times, so that the too
prominent parts, which will bo marked by having
pressed against the inside of the eye, may be
reduced until an equal bearing is obtained. Before
the helve is permanently wedged in, it is neces-

I 3

178 MINING TOOLS.

sary to see that the stems stand perpendicular,
or at a proper angle, thereto. Almost invariably
double-stemmed picks should be fixed square with
their helves. To test that they are so before
wedging up, it is common, after driving a pick-
head on the feather end, to place the other end of
the helve against a fixed point on the ground —
usually, for the time being, against the shoe worn
on left foot. With one stem then pointing down-
wards, a line is scratched on the ground with its
tip. The other tip is next turned down, and if it
do not touch the same line, the head will be out
of square, and must be struck, so that the lines
scratched by both tips coincide. The helve is
then fastened by a hard oak wedge (about i inch
thick, and as wide as the eye is long), which is
driven at the top of the feather, in the direction
of its long axis, as shaded in Fig. 48. An
entrance Is made for the oak w:edge by a broad
steel chisel. Sometimes narrow iron wedges are
driven in across the oak one.

In some instances the eye is " threaded " over
the haft, and then the feather tapers the opposite
way, as in Fig. 187.

For making helves, suitable ash timber in the
round is cut by a crosscut saw into logs of
lengths corresponding with the lengths of the
helves required. The logs are then split or

HELVES OR HANDLES. 179

cleaved, as required, by an iron wedge, like Fig.
160, driven in at one end.

The manner in which helves are cleft is of
some importance. It is well known that in every
tree the wood is more porous at the circumference
than at the centre, and consequently the outer
part shrinks more by drying than the inner
part.* It is very objectionable to have helves
warp sideways^ and to avoid this, as well as to
counteract, as far as possible, the tendency of
helves to warp at all, they require to be cleft in
a particular direction, so that the long axis of the
oval or feather shall radiate from the centre of the
log, similarly to the medullary rays, or just like
the cracks often seen in the end of a felled tree
after drying.

The foregoing will be easily understood by
reference to Fig. 232, which represents the end of
a log, with lines showing how it is cleft radially
in segments for forming pick helves as described.
The dotted lines show the feathered part after-
wards formed out of each piece. At a, the outside
angles are chopped off, to suit for a straight axe

* Boards often warp from this cause, and the same reason
explains why the middle cut in a piece of timber over the saw-
pit so commonly requires no wedging for clearing the saw,
because the tendency of the outer portion of the timber to con-
tract naturally causes the separated pieces to splay away from
each other.

180 MINING TOOLS,

handle. The diameter of the log must slightly
exceed twice the widest part of the feather. In
converting larger logs there is ample latitude for
the exercise of good judgment in making the
most of timber. In Fig. 233 the log is fir^
halved, then quartered, and each quarter is cleft
in the most advantageous manner into pick or
sledge helves, or both, according to the sorts and
sizes required.

The best helves are those from nearest the
centre. In Fig. 234, and part of Fig. 236, the
quartering is unequal to economise the timber.
A cleaver will often apply unequal quartering for
gaining a few more helves out of a log than could
be otherwise obtained ; and when some of various
sizes are required, and there is much difference in
the sizes of the logs, a considerable amount of con-
triving is necessary to make the timber go as far
as possible. Generally a few wasters may be
expected, much according to the skill of the
cleaver, but with good straight-grained timber
there need hardly be any. A log of suitable ash,
1 foot girt (about 16^ inches diameter), is expected
to cleave into 36 or 38 good coal pick helves, each
of about 3 inches wide, by 1| inch thick, in the
largest part of the feather.

The same timber would cleave into about twice
as many sledge helves.

HELVES OR HANDLES. 181

As regards the number of helves which one
man will cleave per day, there is great variable-
ness, as in all other things, according to the skill
of the handicraftsman.

Two men are required to use a crosscut saw,
and it is considered a fair day's work for both of
them, with good timber, to cross cut sufficient ash
into suitable lengths, and cleave and rough hew
about 12 dozen 30-inch pick helves per day, or
about double as many sledge helves.

It is considered that one man will afterwards
dress about 5 dozen rough-hewn pick helves per
day, or 10 dozen sledge helves ; and that he will
fit and wedge up about 7 dozen dressed helves into
picks, or 10 dozen into sledges, per day.

In some places a carpenter is considered to
cleave, rough hew, dress, fit, and wedge up 2 dozen
pick helves per day, or 4 dozen sledge helves in
the same time.

At many collieries and mines, dressed pick
helves are sold to the men at 4d» each, and some-
times the colliers do the fitting and wedging up
themselves. In other caaes a new helve, fitted
and wedged complete, is sold for 5d. to 6d. each
for picks, and 4d. each for sledges.

Helves ought always to be cleaved and rough
hewn when the timber is green, and then they
should be stored away for about three months to

182 MCOXG TOOLS.

season and dry before nse, after whlcli time anj
slight warp can be corrected in dressing.

At some collieries^ where the g^rain of the ash
used is not straight, or good for splitting, the
logs are divided by a circular saw. This often
produces very bad helTcs, when, as often, the grain
does not ran properly with the haft ; consequently,
they warp and break too easily. For the same
reason they are not so easily hewn and dressed as
cleft helves.

The price generally paid for simply hewing and
dressing pick helves which have been sawn out oi
curly-grained ash is 2s. 6d. per dozen.

The expense of a new helve is not of so much
importance as the delay often occasioned by the
breaking of one. It is always more profitable in
the end to give a little more for good helves
than to go on using poor ones because they are
procurable at a less cost. At one colliery where
sawn helves are used, we ascertained that two
dozen pick helves, per himdred hewers, were
broken per week, although the picks were not
exposed to very hard holing or cutting, and only
one face of hard dead work was being carried on
at the time. This gives about four weeks as the
average duration of each helve ; whereas a good
helve ought to last more than four times as long
under the same conditions.

It is by no means an uncommon thing in col-

HELVES OR HANDLES. 183

Heries to find the same helve, where good ones
are used, last a hewer in regular work upwards
of twelve or eighteen months. In collieries
where very hard coal seams are worked in South
Wales, and where a hard bottom has to be cut
very much, moderately good cleft helves are found
to endure six or seven weeks on an average —
bottom picks included. As a rule, pick helves
are exposed to much greater strain in metalli-
ferous mines, and their duration is considerably
shortened, in some instances not exceeding a fort-
night.

A little observation bestowed upon this subject
will sometimes show a surprising disparity be-
tween difierent sorts of ash, as regards durable-
ness for helves, although in external appearance
there is nothing very dissimilar.

In some colliery districts, good cleft helves in
the rough-hewn state, and 30 to 34 inches long,
are sold at from 2s. 3d. to 25. 6d, per dozen for
holing and cutting picks, and 2s. 9d. to 3s. per
dozen for bottom picks.

The haft of an axe handle is generally oval in
section. Ordinary axe handles range from 18 to
26 inches long, with a diflference of 2 inches
between each intermediate size. If straight, they
cost, dressed, from 4rf. to 6d. each, and if bent,
from Id, to 2d. extra.

Felling axe handles, straight, and from 34 to

184 HIKING TOOLS.

36 inches long, cost from 6d. to 7d. each in iron-
mongers' shops.

Wedge axe handles, from 32 to 34 inches long,
are sold at about 10^. to Is. each.

A round-sectioned helve, as before observed,
is the most convenient shape for a shovel. The
grain should run with the handle. The best
handles are bent, after steaming, out of tough,
straight-grained ash. If saivn out, and they
are cross-grained between the straps, helves do
not afford sufficient support to the shoveL

Gravel shovel helves, about 30 inches long,
with crutch handles, are commonly sold for about
6d. each, best quality. Long shovel helves cost
about the same price, and up to 9d, each.

The common growth of ash is confined to tem-
perate and northern latitudes. Locality, climate,
and soil each greatly influence the quality of the
timber, and sometimes a very remarkable dis-
tinction exists in the natures of different varieties
of ash-trees grown in proximate positions.

Ash produced on land which is rather poori or
only moderately rich, is said to be mostt suitable
for helves.

Ash does not suffer by altitude, if it is mode-
rately well sheltered. When it grows in very
moist or boggy soil, the timber is not very .solid
or tough.

HELVES OR HANDLES. 185

If growing at the bottom of a slope, near a
stream, in a loamy soil, where it is not wet, but
kept slightly moist during the heat of summer,
ash thrives in an excellent manner.*

It often grows to perfection on the sheltered
sides of hills and glens.

A uniform hazelly loam is very congenial soil
for ash. It produces tough, straight -grained,
and durable timber, of the character required for
helves.

Some very tough and hearty ash, good for
riving into helves, is found to grow in coldish
parts of our country, on clayey soils covering
argillaceous rocks, about hill-sides often exposed
to the westerly wind, but sheltered from the east.f

Ash may be said to be of rapid growth, but the
difference of soil influences the growth so much
that trees fifty years old may each give seventy-
five feet of timber in one coppice, while in another
they may not yield thirty feet each.

It is not well for ash intended for helves to grow

♦ Ash. roots are very strong suckers of tlie nutritive pro-
perties of soil, and they will reach as far as 40 or 50 yards from.
a tree of eighty years* growth. The roots often impoverish
pasture and crops growing over them to a very marked extent,
which is shown in stunted vegetation, so that it is unad-
visable to adopt ash for hedgerow planting and such-like.

t The timber which has grown on the west side of a tree is
noticed by some woodmen to be harder than other parts, and
many sawyers aver that they can readily detect the difference
in sawing the timber.

186 MINING TOOLS.

very rapidly. A moderate rate of growth gives
the greatest toughness and compactness of fibre.

Foresters consider that the most profitable age
for felling ash is from ninety to one hundred
years' growth. It is then generally " ripe," which
indicated by the " leading point" beginning to is
fail and to lose its verdure. But for making
helves, this is too old to cleave well. The best
age for felling ash for helves is from forty to
fifty years. It will then cleave in a proper
manner, and be hearty and tough. At this age
it is termed about " half ripe." The proper
season for felling it is between October and
February, when the sap is down.

Some ash is imported from Canada. About
forty cubic feet are allowed to the ton, and the
same quantity if not "squared" makes a "load."*

The price of good ash for helves generally
ranges in this country from 9d. to Is. 4d. per
cubic foot — standing in the coppice — including
the measurement of branches over 6 inches girth
but all the rest, with brushwood, &c., is included
free.

Not unfrequently the difficulties of getting the
timber away from the place where it grows in-
fluence the value in parts of England to the

♦ A variety of timber called " hally wood," not much unlike
ash, is occasionally imported from New York.

HELVES OR HANDLES. 187

extent of Sd, per foot. In country places, large
standing lots can often be bought for 6d, per
cubic foot, the branches over 6 inches girth
being measured in, but tops, brushwood, &c., go
free.

At seaport towns it costs about Is. 4:d, per foot
in the rough.

Sometinfts owners sell trees felled and lopped
for Is. to Is. 3d, per cubic foot in the wood ; and
they consider the value of the tops, brushwood, &c.,
sufficient to pay for the labour of cultivating the
young trees and felling.

Forty to fifty years' growth may be considered
to produce, under average circumstances in this
country, about forty cubic feet of measurable
timber in each tree, and ninety trees will grow,
on an average, per acre.

NOTES AND SUPPLEMENTARY

MATTER.

Note to Page 4.

Amount of loss auring conversion of pig-iron to wrought'
iron. — 27 to 28 cwts. of forge pig-iron make a ton of cheap
merchant iron, or common railway bars cut to length. 30 to
35 cwts. of good grey pig-iron are used for the production of a
ton of good merchant bars, sheets, or rods for wire-drawing.

Note to Page 4.

For proportioning the sizes of materials for bearing certain
strains — as in the case of boring rods, &c. — and for estimating
the weights of tools or implements, the following data are now
and then serviceable : —

Metals.

Brass — cast
„ wire
Copper — cast
„ wire

Iron — cast

t>

wrought, bar . . .

plates

„ double riveted )
„ single „ /

wire

„ wire ropes
Lead — cast . .

•

«8^

Bbbakiko Strain in lbs.

1

§1.9

PBR SQUARE INCH.

1

Tension.

Compressiuu.

s

cj'5

Res. to

Res. to

^

tearing.

crushing.

8-4

624

18,000

10,300

8-6

630

49,000

8-7

643

19,000

11,700

9-0

662

60,000

7-0 .

437

17,000

80,000

to

to

to

to

7-26

463

28,000

100,000

( 65,000

( 35,000

7-69

480

1 to

1 to

( 70,000

( 40,000

60,000

seams

(

35,000
28,000
86,000
86,000

11-4

712

1,824

7,000

^

BBUxnra B

■Binr ra lb>.1

i

Pj

rm iiaoiss nroH. j

1

&=«

"Tnt-

i 100,000

Bteel— teinpet«d ....

7'86

iBO

( 120,000
(74,000

1 80,000

7'30

166

16,000

Zioo

TOO
-8

437
60

7,500
17,000

9,100

DnTiBBin.

■7

44

11,000

9,100

Biroh .

■7

44

15,000

6,000

■63

33

12,000

'56

36

12,600

10,000

■66

36

Ottfc-EDgl.

Hh

■93

68

18,000

10,600

Spruce and Bed Deal

■65

40

12,000

6,700

WbIOHT of BOIIMD A

6i7Q

E™nab»™ Squn

re Lara.

Bize

Rcmdbsr.

Sgn^rahw.

lUDhM.

hs.

ImJies.

Ibi.

lbs.

1

■164

209

2

10-49

13-36

2

15-08

■665

H.tfl

13-27

16-91

1^024

18-81

1-475

870

20-87

a-oos 2

S:,6

la-o;

23-11

340

19-84

3-317 4
fi-900 7

227
219
316
617

2*

21-68
23-60
27-70
3213

27-61
3007

40-91

6-926 {

46-97

8-032 H

^)^■v^

1

B-222 1

7*2

4i \ *T^&

\ »■'■■'

190

MINING TOOLS.

Weight of Metal Sheets in lbs

. PEB, i

JUPEHPICTAL FOOT.

1

Thickness.

Iron.

Copper.

Lead.

Thickness.

T«u«v.

rt

Lead.

1

Iron. v/upp«r.

Inch. B.w.o.

1 1

Inch.

A

B.W.G.

»v

28

•63

•72

-92

2000

22-90

29-55

sV

22

1-25

1-43

1-84

2250

25-76

33-24

iV

16

2-60

2-86

3-69

*

25 00

28-63

36-93

A

13

3-75

4-29

5-53

H
16

27-50

31-49

40^62

X

11

500

5-73

7-38

i

3000

34-35

44-32

7

7-50

8-59

1107

15

32-50

37-21

48-01

A

4

1000

11-45

14-77

i

3500

4008

51-70

1

12-50

14-31

18-46

u

37-50

42-94

55-39

f

15-00

17-18

2215

1

4000

45-80

6910

A

17-50

2004

25-84

1

Taking wrought-iron as an example, although a bar of given
quality will not break until each square inch of its sectional
area has to bear a tensional strain of, say, 55,000lbs., or a com-
pressive strain of, say, 35,0001bs., yet it is not safe in actual
practice to load the iron up to more than from ^th to Jrd of
that strain. The safe " working load '* is found by dividing
the " breaking strain '* by a certain figure, termed a " factor of
safety." When the strain brought to bear upon any material
is perfectly steady and uniform, it is called a ** dead load ;" but
when, as in the case of the moving parts of a machine, the
strain is irregular, vibratory, or sudden, it is called a "live
load.** Factors of safety vary accordingly, and may be re-
gistered as follows : —

For dead loads 3, for live loads 5 to 6, in the case of
Metals,

For dead loads 5, for live loads 8 to 10, in the case of

Timber and Masonry,

When, however, dealing with cases like pump rods, which may
be submitted to extra strains by the jamming of pump buckets
or otherwise, and which are liable to quiver or shake con-
siderably in work, the factors of safety are increased to S or
even 4 times greater than those given above, or, to meet the
same end, the strain on the pump rods is taken at 3 or 4 times

NOTES,

191

eiealec than, the nominal " load," and the ordinary factora of
safety are then adopted.

It is useful to carry in mind that ft square foot of wrought-
iron plate, l-inch thick, weighs 40Ibs., becftuae, by reckoning
parts thereof the voig-hts of plates of other thicknesaos, aa veil
as the weights of difiereut sizes of square ftnd flat bars, may be
easily worked out mentally.

To find Ulo equivalent weights of Other metals, multiply Uie
weight of WTOught-iron by 1'021 for steel, by -928 for cast-iron,
by 1'092 for cast brass, by I'lOS for brass win, by 1'13I for
cast copper, by 1-171 for copper wire, by 1-16 for sheet copper,
by 1-483 for lead, by -960 for tin, or by -910 for dnc, as the

■Weiqht

im

0.

DHima.

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361

Jill

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104

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408

Tojinil th« meight icAich ordinary ahort-iink chains mill carry
Ktlh tafety. — Multiply the square of the diameter (reckoned
in 16thB of an inch) by '03S ; the product will be the weight in
tona. Thus, in the case of a i-inch obain: j^JJ, and
12 X 12 z= H4 ; then 144 X '036 = fi-D4, say S tons— the safe
working strain. If the sqnarea are divided by 28, a similsr
answer is obtained. Thus, 144-^28 = 5-14 tons. Forgeneral
purposes 30 may be used as a divisor. The same squares,
multiplied by '0S2, give approximatelythoproof strains in tons.

in links. 1

•M*

1 1*

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11

1)

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Weight in lbs. ,,,

2s Ni Ls

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192 MINING TOOLS,

Wbiqht and Stkinqtb or Wike and Hbup Rofeb.

Steel

Wise.

IbOB WlEK.

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i?:^'r,' 1

!

^

iis

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2
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7

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8

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14

li

if

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10
12

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11

li
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6

16
18
2U
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6
6

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2
2
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el

7
7

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10
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30
33

3d

42
45

10
11
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15

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62

16
17

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X-ii 21 iiX i 32 8iX2i

X i 24 e X I 39 10 X Zj
Xl> 28 6iX 1 48 nix

xi

liopes differ aomewhat in weight and atreugth according to

KoTB TO Paob 6.
Oxidalion er lealing in a tmilh't fire. — At ilie hottest poedtioti
in a smith's firs there is a aurplua of air which will scale iron
placed there to be heated. Fmthsr away bom the hlast, all
the oiygen is appropriated by the fuel to form csrhonio oxide
gai, which poeaesaes hoth i«diicing and carlmriziiig properties.
It will reduce icon scale to metaUio iroa by combining wiili
Hie oxygen of the scale, and in its presence iron absorbs part of
its earbon to form steel. This gas bums in blue flames on the
oataide of the fire, and then fbtms carbonio acid gas. Carhoiua
acid is an oxidizing agent, which, in Hie absence of caibonio
□xida, leadily scales highly-heated iron. It will also oxidize
or "bom " the oarbon in iron (as well as that and some other
consfcLtaents of fuel) when at the requisite temperature. In like
manner it will reduce heated steel to the state of wioogh^Iiou by

194 MINING TOOLS.

combining with and removing carbon from the steel. By this
reaction, carbonic acid is reduced to the state of carbonic ozidey
the former consisting, by weight, of 1 of carbon to 2 J of oi^gen,
the latter of 1 of carbon to 1^ of oxygen.

Notes to Page 12.

Welding test for wrong ht-iron. — "Wrought-iron containing
enough of phosphorus to render it to some extent cold-short,
can be welded with the utmost facility.

A simple test for distinguishing steel and wrought-iron is
that of placing a drop of aqua-fortis (nitric acid) upon a
brightened surface of each. The acid must be sufficiently
dilute to prevent the formation of frothy gas bubbles. The
drop placed upon steel becomes darkened to a resemblance of
ink through the separation of solid carbon, which remains float-
ing in the acid by reason of not being dissolved like the iron.
Acting upon wrought-iron, the drop of acid soon becomes
tinged yellowish brown, which gradually changes to a greenish
colour. Upon washing off the acid with cold water, very
slight rubbing removes almost all trace of the spot from the
iron^ whereas there is a dark stain left upon the steel. Steel in
a hardened state exhibits more decided and rapid separation of
carbon, and bears a deeper stain after washing than the same
steel in a softened state. This arises, probably, iroia the more
porous condition of hardened steel, due to its permanent
expansion by hardening.

TTie bevel edge of a hatchet, ground through both wrought-
iron and steel, is convenient for this experiment. The line of
junction of the iron and steel can usually be seen by reflected
light, but if not thus discernible, it Cfin be readily distinguished
by drawing a little aqua-fortis across the bevel.

The same dilute acid will act upon brightened grey, chilled
grey, mottled, and white cast-iron with much the same effect
as produced upon wrought-iron, but with less coloration in
the cases of chilled and naturally white cast-irons. In each
case, if washed and slightly rubbed, after having been acted
upon five or ten minutes by the acid, scarcely any trace of the
spot remains upon cast-iron.

Brightened steel, rich in carbon, can be distinguished, when
hardened, from mild or sligrhtly carburized steel, similarly

NOTES. 195

brightened and liardened, by merely pla*cing the two sorts side
by side, whereupon the former will be observed to have a
decided yellowish tint, but a silvery whiteness will be shown
by the latter.

Note to Page 16.

Seat developed in the Bessemer converter during blowing. — The
chilling effect of blast blown downwards into molten iron is well
known. In refLning-fires this is compensated by the com-
bn/stion of a considerable quantity of fuel upon the surface of
the molten iron. By introducing the blast at the bottom of a
** converter," the heat of chemical combination becomes well dif-
fused throughout, and is largely absorbed by, the charge. In
the case of the refinery, the reactions occurring on or near the
surface permit the upward escape of heat without directly con-
tributing to the liquefaction of the mass.

Note to Page 17.

Bessemer Steel* — In Sweden, first-class razors and cutlery
are made out of steel manufactured by this process from pig-
iron derived from very pure iron ores smelted with charcoal.
Bessemer steel, or steely-iron, for wire drawing and sheet
rolling, contains from 0*05 to 0*15 per cent, of carbon ; steel for
boat, bridge, and boiler plates, railway axles, and gun barrels
from 0*3 to 0*4 per cent, of carbon ; for tyres and rails from
0*4 to 0*5 per cent. ; for files, razors, and cutlery, 1*0 to 1*5 per
cent. Swedish Bessemer steel must be quite suitable for borers
and other mining tools.

Note to Page 21.

Case-hardening. — Strongly-heated wrought-iron plunged into
fine charcoal powder, or sprinkled with it, becomes skin
carburized. Only a very thin coating of steel is formed by the
experiment ; but, after hardening, it will resist a file. Eussian
sheet-iron, so generally celebrated for toughness, is hammered
— prior to the finishing process — in piles at a red heat, in which
the sheets are separated from each other by a thin layer of
nearly impalpable charcoal powder. This operation, no doubt,
eOects a degree of carburization sufficient to partly account for

k2

196 MININO TOOLS.

the excellence of the sheets, which might he called steel, or
steely-iron sheets. We have drawn attention, on page 32, to
the likelihood of similar skin carhurization in the process of
oil hardening.

KoTB TO Paob 24.

Welding Steel, — Some smiths mix a little sal-ammoniac with
the horax used for forming a glaze to prevent scaling in draw-
ing heats. Ahout 1 part of the former to 8 or 10 parts of the
latter are mixed in a powdered state, and heated over a fire.
When melted to a clear liquid, it is poured out to cool, and then
pounded up for use as required.

Note to Paob 27.

Vaporization of Water during procese of hardening eteel,-^
Sainte-Claire Deville recently found that the higher the tem-
perature iron is raised to before plunging into water, the less
water is decomposed during the first given measure of time after
the instant of immersion. He concluded that the affinity of the
iron for the oxygen in water decreased with increase of tem-
perature, or, what amounts to the same, that the affinity of
hydrogen for its accompanying oxygen in water increased
notably with increase of temperature. The fact observed
may be influenced by the well-known spheroidal condition
which water assumes when in contact with heated metals,
besides by the greatly increased tension of the envelope of
vapour surrounding a more highly heated mass of iron when
in water — a circimistance which would prevent the access of
equal quantities of water to the iron.

The phenomenon above referred to must have an influence
on the operation of hardening steel. This operation is also
greatly influenced by the shape and mass of articles under
treatment. A 1-inch cube of steel exposes 6 square inches of
surface. upon which water can operate for cooling; while a
12-inch cube, containing 1,728 cubic inches, exposes only 864
square inches of surface, or only } a square inch of surface per
cubic inch of content, instead of 6 square inches per cubic inch,
as in the first case. In. this example the ratio of cooling surface
per cubic inch of content in the two cubes is as 12 to 1, so that
to obtain equal effects in the same time, twelve times the

NOTES. 197

quantity of water, per unit of surface, most come into contact
with the larger cube, and the heat or caloric must travel out
through the mass twelve times faster — the first condition diffi-
cult, and the last impossible, to obtain. For hardening smiths'
anvils — and heavy sledges, referred to on page 70 — large
running streams of cold water are requisite, but even then the
articles are often too soft, owing to the annealing influence of heat
slowly travelling from their centres. For obtaining sufficient
hardness in dies used for coining — ^which, though not of large
mass, require to be exceedingly hard — a stream of cold water
escaping from heavy pressure is used.

Note to Paob 35.

Tempering Coloure, — The various colours occurring in regular
order on the surface of either brightened iron or steel are
attributable to the decomposition of light by the film of oxide
of iron — ;which increases in thickness — ^formed on the article.
The colours can be produced upon brightened soft as well as
upon hardened steel. Misleading consequences as to the
quality of steel, and mischief to others, have been effected by
ill-disposed workmen acquainted with the fact that colours can
be reproduced on steel already tempered.

Notes to Page 39.

Ited-aeh Coal, — The depth of reddish coloration of the ashes
from this, in conjunction with the quantity of ash, is an index
to the amount of sulphur existing as iron pyrites in the coaL
The deeper the redness the greater is the proportion of oxide of
iron, representing a larger amount of pyrites.

Saws are invariably hardened in oil, which also toughens
them. Various oils are used, as linseed, whale, &c. The oil
bath is kept heated to a certain point — often about 200** Fah. —
to render it thinly liquid ; thus, by its increased fluidity, to
accelerate the abstraction of heat by convection. In regular
work more than one oil bath is necessary, because the tem-
perature of oil very rapidly rises (already referred to on
page 26), and above a certain point it will not harden plates of
ordinary thickness. At the most favourable temperature it is

198 MlNliTG TOOLS.

Tery difficult to " strike " hardness through saw blades which
are as much as f -inch in thickness.

Some reference has been made to the yarions sorts of tamp-
ing in common use in connection with rock blasting. When
nitro-glycerine — discovered by Nobel — ^was first being intro-
duced as an explosive agent, one point, urged strongly in its
feivour, rested on the convenience it oflTered regarding tamping.
A little soft clay, mould, dust, or sand, gently placed against
the charge, afforded sufficient resistance to cause most effective
blasts by using nitro-glycerine, because of the instsmtaneous and
violent action of its explosive force. Even water tamping was
adequate, and for downward holes nothing could be more con-
venient. Necessity for claying wet holes disappeared. The
charge had simply to be poured in, that it might sink to
the bottom of the water. In case a faulty fuse caused a mis*^
fire, there was no occasion for risking the loosening out of
tamping by prickers, or otherwise, in order to recharge.
Tamping bars were, so far, valueless. To be able to discard
their use entirely could grieve no one.

The necessity, however, for creating parliamentary restric-
tion against the employment of nitro-glycerine was soon sug-
gested by several calamitous accidents which attended its
storage, transit, and use, and which soon caused its destructive
peculiarities to be regarded with widespread alarm. Many
who looked forward to increased prosperity of mining industry
regretted that an explosive agent, possessing after all so much
to recommend it, should, notwithstanding, be characterized by
such dangerous attributes.

Since that time Nobel set himself the task of discovering a
safeguard against the danger, and of producing a compound
having practically the enormous strength of nitro-glycerine,
yet without its special drawbacks, and his labours have been
encouragingly rewarded by the production of dynamife, said to
consist of about 75 per cent, of nitro-glycerine and 25 per cent,
of soft and porous silicious matter.* The compound is of pasty
consistence. Lit by fire in the open air it bums away in a

* Porosity seems to be an important character, to render the material
sufficiently absorbent to imbibe all the nitro-glycerine, and secure against
any separation of the same in free drops, which Would be extremely dan-
gerous.

NOTBS. 199

very qtiiet manner, but if fired by a detonating or percussion
cap, or gunpowder, it explodes with almost incredible force.
Sand tamping, gently laid against it, is sufficient for dry holes,
and water tamping serves for wet ones. Its extreme quickness
in exploding makes it highly efFectire, even in blasting open,
fissured, or potty ground, where ordinary blasting powder
would be of little or no good. Dynamite has been proved to
keep without any deterioration for years. If frozen, it is put
in a warm place until softened fit for use. It is used in
cartridges of oiled paper, or tin, each having a fuse with a cap
fastened on one end, which penetrates the charge, and is
secured in place by a string tied aroimd the neck of the
cartridge. At about 28. per pound, in small quantities, it may
seem to be expensive, but against this must be set its far
greater strength and convenience than blasting powder, as well
as its better adaptability for small bore-holes.

Nitrous oxide fumes from exploded nitro-glycerine have
been complained of, but dynamite has acquired great favour in
actual work on many parts of the Continent ; and the risk of
its exploding under any ordinary conditions, excepting those of
actual work, is sufficiently remote to satisfy all reasonable
requirements.

Another compound with which we have more recently been
brought acquainted in this country is lithofracteury first brought
out under that expressive name in Germany, by Professor
Engels of Cologne. According to accounts, it consists of 75
per cent, of nitro-glycerine, and the rest gun-cotton, con-
stituents of gunpowder, and infusorial earth. Lithofracteur is
a black plastic substance, manufactured (under trade secrets) so
that it may be made up into cartridges of any sizes. It is
employed much like dynamite, and offers similar advantages
regarding tamping, &c. Fired by a capped or percussion fuse,
it gives out immense force, otherwise there appears to be
practically no liability of explosion. For some time past, it
has been used in Germany with good results, and lately it has
been submitted to the most searching tests upon its strength
and safety at quarries near Shrewsbury, owned by Mr. R S.
France, the results being very convincing of its value. The
encouragement given by that gentleman to the carrying out of
the experiments — no cost being spared to make them con-
clusive — deserves to be acknowledged in high terms.

200 Mimi^G TOOLS.

The chief difference between dynamite and lithofractenr
appears to be that the latter contains a small percentage of
explosive ingredients besides nitro-glyceriue, and therefore it
may be expected to be somewhat stronger, which is some
advantage, providing no element of safety be thereby sacrificed.

Since nitro-glycerine happens to enter into the composition
of such explosive mixtures as those referred to, we are at
present prohibited in this country from benefiting by the ad-
vantages accruing from their use. On the Continent their
application is not hampered by any Nitro-glycerine Act, bnt
their superiority, compared with powder, is taken advantage of
daily. In this comitry the mining portion of the community
is not prone to agitation, but every day adds to the dissatis-
feustion felt towards the Act alluded to, and the anxiety to
witness proper modification thereof is already very great.

201

INDEX.

Adze-hbads, weig^ht and cost o^
109.

Air, composition o^ 6: scaling
effect o^ 6, 193; upon sted, 23.

American picks, 84.

Anchor-h^id picks, 74.

Annealing in oil bath, 27, 82.

Ash, age for felling, and season,
186 ; average produce of, per acre,
187 ; for helyes, soils and climate
for growth o^ 184; imported,
186; price ol^ 186; trees, rate of
growth, 185.

Aines in coal, 88, 197.

Angers, 42, 161.

Australian pick, 84.

Axe (see also Hatchet), 103;
angle of cutting edge, 106 ; claw
ot 104; cost of, 108; cutting
edge of, 104, 106, 107 ; difference
between it and the hatchet, 104 ;
felling, 107 ; forest, 104 ; handles,
105, 183; heads, advantage of
inlying, 109; forging and tem-
pering, 108; construction, sizes
and weights ol^ 104, 105, 107;
Irish, 103; Kent, 104; mattock,
159; mortise, 107; Newcastle,
104 ; Scotch, 104 ; side or squar-
ing, 107; stone, 153; wedge,
104; Yorkshire, 104.

Ballast shovels, 97.

Bar-iron, weight of round and

square, 189.
Bars, size, weight, and cost of^

157 ; useid in foreign mines, 158.
Bathstone, jadding in quarries,

148.
Beater, or beating-pick, 170.
Bell-boz, 167.
Bell-screw, 165.
Benching, 75; down, by machines,

148.
Bessemer process for steeLmaMng,

15-19, 80; over-blown charges,

17; manganese for, 18: influence

of sulphur and phosphorus, 19;

heat developed, 16, 195.

Bits, borer-, removing firagments
o^ firom bore-holes, 132, 168.

Blast, scaling effect ot, 6, 198.

Blasting, danger of using smilt
and train, 137.

Blister-steel, 20.

Borax for welding steel, 24.

Borers, 42; auger-shell, 61; bits
ol^ 42, 48; effectiveness of short,
46; for deep holes, bow-bit, 60;
double nicker-bit, 61 ; S-bit, 61 ;
separate bits for large sizes, 61 :
for soft ground, 62; for stiff
days, 62; hardening, 83; sizes
of bit, shaft or stock, 48.

Borer-steel, 45.

Borers, striking-, making and
using, 45.

Borer-bits, angle of cutting-edge,
48; backward edges, 49; bow,
47; club, 59; colours for tem-

Serin^, 53; crescent-shape, 69;
efective shapes, 49 ; forging, 47,
49, 66, 66 'f impaired in use, 66;
strength mfluenced by shape ol^
48 ; injured b^ overheating, 66:
ni(^er, 59; nipped comers oi^
49; odd-comex^ 49; temi>er-
ing, 85» 87, 51, 52— in oil, 58;
precaution in hardening, 51;
revolving, for coal, 60 ; straight,
47 ; swallow-tail, 59 ; time taken
to sharpen and temper, 56 ; tool
for shi^ening, 49 ; width oi^ in
sets, 47.

Bore-holes for blasting, ordinary
sizes, 56 ; putting in pipe-linings,
168.

Boring dust, 130.

Boring, hardness of some rooks,
51; mallet, 65; tools, 162-169
(see other Miscellaneous Tools,
also Borers) ; use of cutting oar-
rots or cores, 167.

Bottie-jadc, 171.

Bottom pick, 77.

Box quarries, jadding toolB used
in, 148.

Brace key, 162.

3

202

INDEX.

Breaking etraiiui of metals and
timber, 188.

Bronze and copper shooting nee-
dles, prickers and tamping bars,
138, 139, 141.

Broom used for ore-dressing, 169.

Bucking iron, 67.

Bull crook, 169.

Bulling shovel, 170.

Cakt-hookb, 173.

Carbon, forms of; 12 ; afiBnities c^,
32 ; modes of, in iron, 12.

' in oil, 31 ; in pig or cast-

iron, 3, 13, 16; in steel, 18-19,
22, 31 ; in wood, 81.

-, in steel, hardening pro-

perty of; 25, 28; influence upon
welmng, 14 ; upon tem]pering, 35.
-, removal from pig or cast-

iron, 3, 16, 23, 31.

Carbonic acid, oxidizing influence,
193.

Carbonic oxide, formed bj Besse-
mer process, 16; carourizing
property oi^ 198; for heating
nurnaoe, 33.

Carbonization of oil, 27, 81; of
wood, 31.

Carburization of iron, 19, 21, 193,
195 ; of steel, 32.

Carrots or cores, advantage of
cutting in bore-holes, 166.

Cartridges for blasting, 138.

CaBC-hardening, 21, 22, 82, 195.

Caat-steel, 22; picks, 89; sledges^
71.

Cat's-head sledge, 65.

Cementation process for steeL 19.

Chuns, weight and strength of, 191.

Charcoal for case-hardening, 195;
for steel-making, 19.

Cheek-head hammers, 64.

Chips and clamps, 147.

Chisels, firmer and mortise, cost
0^160.

Chisels or borers, hardening, 83,
51. 54 ; tempering, 35, 51.

Cinders (see Slags).

CSUunps and chips, 147.

Claw. 165 ; -bar, 157.

Clay irons, 134 ; cost of; 136 ; use o^
135, 136.

Clay shale in coal, 89 ; effect upon
*^heat8,» 40.

Clinker from coal, 88, 40.

Coal, ash. &c^ in, 88, 40 ; impor-
tance of good quality for foiving,
47 ; lime in, 40 ; pyrites and sul-
phur in, 39 ; shale in, 89 ; silioa
m, 40.*

, caMngf 89; suitable for

hardening-nre, 83.

Coal, impure, effect upon weld-
ing, 40.

f red-ash, 89. 197 ; smith's, 88.

•, washing o^ 40.

Cobbing haimner, 67.

Coil-drag, 164,

Cold-short iron, 2, 10.

Colours during temx)ering, 86, 197.

on brightened iron, 85k

197.

Copper and bronze shooting
needles and prickers, 188, 139.

Corbel-bits to counteract wincing,
80.

Crane hooks, 178.

Crook-bar, 157.

Crosscut saw. 111.

Crowbar, 156.

Cutting coal, side cuts, &&

Cutting picks, 76» 77, 7&

Cut-off pick, 76.

Dakgbb of firing charges by smift,

187.
Bark shops for hardening, 88.
Dead-work picks, 76-78, 81.
Decarburization of pig-iron, 8» 11;

of cast-iron, 23.
Devon shovel, 96.
Dibber, 158.
Dipper or bail, 170.
Drag-twist, 131.
Drawing cap, 168.
Drills, 42.

Driver, or driving punch, 171.
Driving iron, 154.
Dynamite, 198.

Elbow- AKGHOR pick, 78.

Elbow-head pick, 74.

Electricity for safe firing of

charges, 140.
Expansion of mercury, oil, and

water, 26.
of steel by hardening,

25, 194.
Eyes of foreign picks, 82, 88 ; of

hammers, 64; of picks, 80; of

sledges, 68.

Factors <tf safety for loads, 190.

Fellinff axe, 107.

Files for sharpening saws, 118.

Pluids for steel hardening, 26.

Fluxes for welding, 7, 24 j for iron
ores, 8 ; sulphur, &c., in, 8.

Fluxing iron scale with sand, 7.

Forest axe, 104.

Forging borer-bits, 47, 49, 66, 66 ;
cast-steel, 55.

Fracture of bar-iron, 10 ; contain-
ing phosphorus, 10 ; " saw iron,*'
11.

Fr«t, effect et, spot) bar-iron,
Fuel, 38, 47 ; Bolphar In, S, 89.

Ond^wtoid

Gi^elrmka,

Grardihovel
Oiips, 163.

wetaf,iei.

Handles leeealao Helveel, 174;ft>r
axes, ahapD vid len^n of, 105^
■huw, liMi, andijort of, 188, ISi.

Hu^ened etee], tedtuitr o^ ^,
180; eOeotoCeidd draughts, aa

Hardeniii^ Bledses, 70.

Hardening sleel, SS, 38, 61, IM;
flaids tor, m, 197 ; b«st best tor,
tS; lnlKHUn^iTatfli,S8; heatinR
fonuce for, S2. 88 ; molten lead
f0r,88i ooal for, SO; darkened
ebops fbr, 38.

oity, 28-81.

;of, se

En oil, tanghDuiog
wator oraoks by.

Hurduesa of some locke for boring.

Hatchet (see bIbo Aie), 103;
blade at, lOS; description of,
108, lOfi; tTTim ot 103, 106;
fondgn, 109 ; handles, 105 ; heads
i^ 103, IW, 101 ; poll oC loe;
welgfat of heads, 10^ 107.

fieat, Utteet upon rted, I9.

, best fbr hardaning, S8 ;

tempering, 31.

Heatin's tongs, 168.
HeaB,&f., &blBa^

ISiij feather (
■wedging, 1T7,
BhOTBlH. 17S,

i^i, 114;

Ikon'ol, l ™"
, 177: fitting Huu
78; tor pioks and

^r picJ^ boir

_„..,- ,-. for boring ham-
ond sled^res, 66; l^gtbs

17; time taken to make and fit,
ir picks and sledges, 181 ; warp-
3g ot 179 ; vaflt«ra uid numbers
Lade Domalog,180; Tood suited

liig, 70 B6.

Ling picks, 76<78 ; taper of tjpsi

r ore-dreeaing, 100.
, miter, 30; Ubara-

, distingnislied tram stHd,

ig to wronght, 4, 188.

., pure, 2; slBdy, 196) nial-

able cast, 23.

-, oxides of, 8, M, 38; snl-

tiidefl 0^ 89, pyrites, 69.

- aoale, S ; prodootion o^ S,
ts ; Dompcaiaan of, 8, 8 ; mag-
EtisiD at, 9 ; diffisi^t fnsibltitjr
% e : effect of, upon welds, 6 ;
imbinaUon with saiHl, 9 ; fturi-
le campound with sand, 7, 18.

-, heated, scaling in watar, IT,
1,33,198.

- ores, 2 ; fluxing m dagging.

• ; phosphorus ii^ 2, 19 ; a
L, le ; stilphur in, 8, 19 ; i:

304 in:

iTtn, jiUored irith raunseH, IS.

- — , WTOiwhtt 1 1 pmiuoHtioii frf^
4 : cheaplr-Dude qualitr, 4 ; fll»g
in, *; ireight ot 4, ^ 168)
ctrengUi ot 1, 6, IBS, 189; fras-
tore Q^ 10 ; HAling ot, o, IPS »
■kinf]^ 11 1 tertingot IS! irdd-
mg property of, 5 ; cuboriiaticni
c4 1», 11, 1%: oise-bwdeniiu
■A SI, 196; Dubon in, 1!; oold^
■hort, i; nd-shoit, 2, B9 : effect
of Tibi-ltion, IS ; 01 oold, 13.

Juxi, «ait of, ITS.
jAddiiw, Ifil, lErS.
^^inBi.lGl; piokg, 11% lEO.

Iiftiiig-dog«, IBS.
lime for uon-Bznelbng, {
wcUiiw, B; iaooti,1ti.

UUa&HCtenr, II

Long-pod ugon, IG
Loap-cUw, lal.
IiDi^p Bledgc^ e&

Karlins-SIiiks, 19S.

llatsh,19e.

Mmttock, f 1 i ooet ot 160.

HeaLlSO.

Hd^poinla of metaU, ST, 4

riaticaioC ST.

XeUla Mid timber, w^^u ai

breatjng itnini at IBB.
Hetal ibeet*, mdght ot 100.
MiscelluieoiiB took, 130.

IBS; cost ot iSBi daugvrg in

KipIung-ftiA, in.

Nitrogen Ibr uteel eo n t Mliny , H.

NltKMl^oeniha, ISB.

Nlieg«tpiGk,81.

Picker, we.

Piok-hesd, nuking, SI, SE> ; ihKi*
and veigbt hccoraing to iroA to
b« done, 14-19, ^ Si. 8T-6S

Piok bdrs, 176 ; vuHung, TO.

Bcki, utiOD and VH^ TS; out-

uid vei^tnwd-
T«;inlWi~
ahire, for '

r tip^ 18; Cnm

NorUiiinibecUnd, IS; in _.. _

T8; in B. W^ii, fe bcUncand
cDttiug, rei^rdr'apate^Slt
heads, ant c^ 88 ; iwadi, lei^:tha

Dt for hiding *ad cntttu^, n :

nsed in BT^Inlee, TT.

, dead-work, ie-18, SI.

, driving ot Mom, IT, 70.

, beads ot nuking, 87, B>i

ahape and might of SndM, T4-

l%I^Sl,B7-a£

, poll-, ibrm HUd TS^t ol

Comuh, 78; lued in Berbnhire,
7I> ; Dsad in niDlahite, 7§ ; «r-
nwi4 T9i si»of itam (dt hA
Biinnia,TE>.

Fttohfork, U».
Flstdayer'ii iidie,
Hit«laying tools, _
PIMlngahaveKSa.

rtyiDBtools, B

Bmilmr >dza. lOQ.

Balibig btdkai rodi Dnt of boi»-

bolM or pamn, list, VO, la.
Boko, SDBt (A Ifll.
Bed-uh oobI, EK>. 18T.
R«d-ahort iron, S, 89.
R^niOfrpig-inHLS; Idh Id mlirht
ne, 4,188.

BiTSliine,

Book pink, .

Bods ol liaie-balei or pnmpa,

lAinng "wlwii broken, 104, 160^

^■^™

"*

for waldinff, T, ^ ; huible oon
poond vritb kbIo, T ] oombini
oon with Kale, R.

I. 205

3hw«, bUdei o^ 111 ; mat oL 111,
112, IX; oKWMiit, nil oroaaoni
huid, 113; desmiptlon and
ori^uLof, llOi handi 111; bond,
viStb and thicfcneM ot pUta,

BoclietB of, lie,' les ; liardening-,
197; aclwtin^, good points in,
124; nbarpemn^ teeth o^ 113;
stone, 1^; cutting damp free-

jngla °t cnttiiw edge. 118;
bevellmg, effect oi lie ; eare in

flline, IM; dog-teeth, 130; duBt

pressed between, IW ; form

pmng, llB;fiiriii (Or scoring,

; boating of, in ifork, IKl;

lin

ot tips, 124. 123; number

incb for liaod hbws, IJS;

pog l«th, lil ; piloh ot 118; Bet

ording to ohHTsoter of wood
m, uS; letting, lit; aeUing

■ti

oe saw., IM; .hort teetl^
; site of, Ul : sp»« ba-
len, 123 ; siMoiding to aharih-

t«

grain of wood aawn, 123; apaoee

ui relation to strength o^ 1S9.

Saw t«etb, tendency (^ iondaom

BCHbbingpiokiSS.

Seals, iron [see Inm Hale).

ScarB for i"ldillKT| remoral of

ir spoon, 131.
n ■(ud«r, IS

Bsrtqien, laiC ise.
goraping sboT^. 101.
Sorew-aoger, 160.
Screw-Boant, 1«S.

?^ormoC IM

BharpenuvHJidtcmporing; borer-
bite, 4T-Mi timetaksn,M; pioks.

Bhorels, uwle of hdie viUi plate,
Mi bnlliiw. no; uwt of, UO;
grease ol, Ss ; dea»lTiticm ot, M,
M ; DeTDn, or laDg-bHndJed, B6 ;
edgei ot BO; eSect of priziiie',
in lue, 99; fcreign, 101 ; (i-yinff-
»n, 97; HTBTBl, sa; plntes uf,
04 ; moae oy roUiAg and plulin^,
S6 ; moolh of, B8 ! proiwea, 9; -.
Qoitlity ol, flS; Tound'Eoouth,
»7i Bopaping, (Bnd trojB.) 101;

to brejt, M, 100; wooden, of

16; in goal, 40.
BOioOD in pi^Iron, 16.

Bkinofbar^Sin,"-'
Blag i foige and m
m wrought-irc"

Socket-bar or becbe, IW.

Ep^es, 84 1 ijaj or gniting, 98,

Spoiling hatonier, fl7.

Specific sraTitiea of metals, See.,

gpiE^elcisen osed in BcBBBmer

S^er. IBS. '

SpliMB, tope, 118.

Spoons and Bci'Apers, cost of, 132,

Spteadet, used far ote di^saing.

"Bpreadine" and"<
ra jadding pick, 141
Spring-du^ 1«S-

bon in, 18, U .

Boaling, or "baniinK"ot M, SI,

83, 1^; hardeiuiig pntport; o^

of, 33, 193 ; lemporing of, 84, SO,
as (see Tf mpermg) ; weldabilitj
ot 14 : weldjng of, 19fl.

, bUBter, 20 ; price for bita,

48; caat, 29; low haat for fOrg-
ing, 56; price for borers, 46:
ebcar, 24 ; price (or bits, Ac,
M : by Ecesemer proOHB, 10, SO,

ii, 7a, TS; lengtha,
1 ; weight and coat ol;

Suuiffhl-head pick, T4

B ot aafety,
1. 4, 6,1*.

;triking borerB, 44 ; veai o^ 51
stripping mandrel, 77.

ripping mandi
_.iid-l>locfclS8.

HtTunps of hamn: ,

Sidpbidee of iron, 89.
Bulphur, effect upon ~

2, 39;,infuel, S,

— , &o., in pig-iron, diml-

Hmib-Btick' 182.
Sweep-head pick, 74.

TiBii of heata, melting points.
&!!., 37, 40; of Bpeoific grarity,
Btrengtb and weight of matius
and timber, 168: of atren^h
and weight of obaina, 191 ; of
hemp and wire lOpcB. 1»2, 183 :
of weight of bar-u-on, ISSj of
sheet metals, 190.

INDEX.

207

Tamping bars, 140: bronze fiEtced,
141 ; copper £Eicea, 141 ; cost ot,
142.

Tamping case, 143.

Tamping, 141 - 143 ; plaster-of-
paris, 143 ; water, 198 : or stem-
ming, 136: dangers connected
with, 141-143, 198.

Tempered steel, tenacity and
toughness of, 29, 84.

Tempering steel, 34, 63 ; best tem-
per for tools, 34; influence of
carbon percentage upon, 35.

, brightened surfiEU>e for,

34, 86; colours, 86l 197; heats,
87; metaUic baths for, 36;
method for mining tools, 37.

borers, 36, 37, 61, 63 ; in

oil, 53 ; chisels, 36, 37 ; picks,
87, 86 ; saws, 197.

Testing wrought-iron, 12, 194.

Tiger, 163.

Tifler, 112, 162.

Timber and metals, weight and
breaking strain of^ 188, 189 (see
Wood).

Timber bar, 167.

Tips of picks^ 72, 73, 84.

Top-sweep pick, 77.

Train, 136.

Trap, 166.

Traversing-jack, 172.

Trays used with scrapers, 101.

Treenail auger, 161.

Tube linings in bore-holes, cut-
ting, 169.

Twibm, 84.

Undbbooiko, 76.

Vent hole through tamping, 136.
Vibration, effect o^ upon iron, 12.

"Wad coil, 164.
Washed coal, 40.

Water, composition o^ SO; effect
of; upon heated iron, 27^ 30 :
for hardening, 26 ; expansion o^
26; vaporization of; 27, 196;
hydrogen liberated from, 27.

Water cracks produced by harden-

Wedge axe, 104.

Wedge sledge, 66 ; collier's, 146.

Wedges and ^uls, 144.

Weight and strength of chains,
191 ; of ropes, 192, 198; of mate-
rials, 188-191 ; factors of safety,
190; of wrought-iron, 4, 5, 188,
190.

Weight of forge slags, 6 ; of metals
and timber, 188 ; of metal sheets,
190; of round and square bar-
iron, 189.

Welding steel, 14, 196; influence
of combined car Don upon, 14.

wrought-iroUj 5; shape

of scarfis for, 7 ; testmg quality
by, 12, 194.

-, influence of phosphorus.

194; of sulphur, 39; of dirty
coal, 40.

slag or cinder firom scale

and sand, 7; scale and lime, 9.

Wincing, corbel-bits to counter-
act, 80; Dean Forest mode of
preventing, 80; foreign picks,
82 ; shape of pick-eyes to coun-
teract, BO.

Wire ropes, weight and strength
of, 192, 193.

Woodj composition of; 81; car-
bonization of, 81; weight and
strength of, 189.

Worm, 164.

Worm-auger, 62.

Wrench, 163.

I YoLKSHiKB axe, 104.

THE END

VIBTUS AJND CO., P&lHThBS, CITY BO.U), lONDOM.

London, August^ 1871.

OF

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Iron Permanent Way 90a — -

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List of Plates and Diagrams,

MAIN DRAINAGE, METROPOLIS.
North Side.

Map showing Interception of Sewers.

Middle Level Sewer. Sewer under Re-
gent's Canal.

Middle Level Sewer. Junction with Fleet
Ditch.

Outfall Sewer. Bridge over River Lea.
Elevation.

Outfall Sewer.
Details.

Outfall Sewer.
Details.

Outfall Sewer.

Bridge over River Lea.
Bridge over River Lea.

Bridges over Marsh Lane,

North Woolwich I&ilway, and Bow and

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Outfall Sewer. Bridge over Bow and

Barking Railway. Elevation.
Outfall Sewer. Brieve over Bow and

Barkine Railway. Details.
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Barking Railway. Details.
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Waterworks' Feeder. Elevation.
OutfaU Sewer. Bridge over East London

Waterworks' Feeder. Details.
Outfall Sewer. Reservoir. Plan,
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Outfall Sewer. Tumbling Bay and Outlet
Outfall Sewer. Penstocl^.

South Side,
Outfall Sewer. Bermondsey Branch.

Outfall Sewer.
Outfall Sewer.
Plan.

Bermondsey Branch.
Reservoir and Outlet

MAIN DRAINAGE, METROPOLIS,
continued—

Outfall Sewer. Reservoir and Outlet

Details.
Outfall Sewer. Reservoir and Outlet

Details.
Outfall Sewer. Reservoir and Outlet

Details.
Outfall Sewer. Filth Hoist.
Sections of Sewers (North and South

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THAMES EMBANKMENT.

Section of River Wall.

Steam-boat Pier, Westminster, Elevation.

Steam-boat Pier, Westminster. Details.

Landing Stairs between Charing Cross
and Waterloo Bridees.

York Gate. Front Elevation.

York Gate. Side Elevation and Details.

Overflow and Outlet at Savoy Street Sewer.
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Overflow and Outlet at Savoy Street Sewer.
Penstock.

Overflow and Outlet at Savoy Street Sewer.
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Steam-boat Pier, Waterioo Bridge. Eleva-
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Stoam-boat Pier, Waterloo Bridge. De-
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Steam-boat Pier, Waterloo Bridge. De-
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Junction of Sewers. Plans and Sections.

Gullies. Plans and Sections.

Rolling Stock.

Granite and Iron Forts.

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Humberts Modem Engineeriftg. Faiirtk Series.

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NAME AND DESCRIPTION. PLATES. NAME OF BNG1MBEB.

Abbey Mills Pumping Station, Main Drainage,

Metropolis x to 4 Mr. Bazalgette, C.E.

Barrow Docks 5 to 9 Messrs. M Clean & StiUman,

Manquis Viaduct, Santiago and Valparaiso [C.E.

Railway xo, 11 Mr. W. Loyd, C.E.

Adams' L^ocomotive, St Helen's Canal Railw. X2, X3 Mr. H. Cross, C.E.
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Railway 14 to 16 Mr. J. Hawkshaw, C.E.

Road Bridjge over the River Moka 17, 18 Mr. H. Wakefield, CE.

Tel^japhic Apparatus for Mesopotamia 19 Mr. Siemens, C. E,

Viaduct over the River Wye, Midland Railw. 20 to 22 Mr. W. H. Barlow, C.E.

St. Germans Viaduct, Cornwall Railway .... 23, 24 Mr. Brunei, C.E.

Wrought-Iron Cylinder for Diving Bell 25 Mr. J. Coode, C.E.

Miilwall Docks 26 to 31 Messrs. J. Fowler, C.E., and

William Wilson, CE.

Milpoy's Patent Excavator 32 Mr. Milroy, C. E.

Metropolitan District Railway 33 to 38 Mr. J. Fowler, Engineer-in-

Chief, and Mr. T. M.
Johnson, C.E.
Harbours, Ports, and Breakwaters a to c

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Humberts Great Work on Bridge Construction.

A COMPLETE and PRACTICAL TREATISE on CAST and
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Plates and numerous Woodcuts. Price 6s.

** A vast amount of really valuable matter condensed into the small dimen-
sions of a book which is, in resdity, what it professes to be — ^a pocket-book. ....
We cordially recommend the book to the notice of the managers of coal and other
mines ; to them it wiM prove a handy book of reference on a variety of subjects more
or less intimately connected with their profession. It might also be placed with
advantage in the hands of the subordinate officers in collieries." — Colliery, Guardian,

"The assignment of the late Mr. Weale's ^Engineer's Pocket-Book* to Messrs.
Lockwood & Co. has by no means lowered the standard value of the work. It is too
well known among those for whom it is specially intended, to need more from us than
the observation that this continuation of Mr. Weale's series of Pocket Books well
sustains the reputation the work has so long enjoyed. Every branch of engineering
is treated of, and facts, figures, and data of every kind abound." — Mechanics* Mag,

"It contains a large amount of information peculiarly valuable to those for whose
use it is compiled. We cordially commend it to the engineering and architectural
professions generally."— JfcT/ww^ Journal,

Iron Bridges^ Girders^ Roofs, &c.

THE APPLICATION OF IRON TO THE CONSTRUC-
TION OF BRIDGES, GIRDERS, ROOFS, and other Works.
By Francis Campin, C.E. With numerous Illustrations. i2mo,
cloth boards, 3J. S^^Just jjub\xs>ved.

6 WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO.

Barlow on the Strength of Materials^ enlarged.

A TREATISE ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS,
with Rules for application in Architecture, the Construction of
Suspension Bridges, Railways, &c ; and an Appendix on the
Power of Locomotive Engines, and the effect of Inclined Planes
and gradients. By Peter Barlow, F.R.S., Mem. Inst, of France ;
of the Imp. and Royal Academies of St Petersburgh and Brussels ;
of the Amer. Soc Arts ; and Hon. Mem. Inst. Civil Engineers.
A New and considerably Enlarged Edition, revised by his Sons,
P. W. Barlow, F.R.S., Mem. Inst. C.E., and W. H. Barlow,
F.R.S., Mem. of Council Inst. C.E., to which are added a Sum-
mary of Experiments by Eaton Hodgkinson, F.R.S., William
Fairbairn, F.R.S., and David Kirkaldy ; an Essay (with
Illustrations) on the effect produced by passing Weights over
Elastic Bars, by the Rev. Robert Willis, M.A., F.R.S. And
Formulae for Calculating Girders, &c. The whole arranged and
edited by William Humber, Assoc. Inst. C.E., and Mem. Inst
M.E., Author of ** A Complete and Practical Treatise on Cast and
Wrought-Iron Bridge Construction," &c. &c. Demy 8vo, 400 pp.,
with 19 laige Plates, and numerous woodcuts, price i&f. cloth.

Opimons of the Press.

"This edition has undergone considerable improvement, and has been brought down
to the present date. It is one of the first books of reference in existence." — Artisan.

** Although issued as the sixth edition, the volume under consideration is worthy of
being regarded, for all practical purposes, as an entirely new work . . . the biook
is imdoubtedly worthy of the highest commendation, and of an honourable place in
the library of every engineer." — Mining Journal.

"An increased value has been given to this very valuable work by the addition of
a large amount of information, which cannot prove otherwise than highly useAil to

those who require to consult it The arrangement and editmg of this

mass of information has been undertaken by Mr. Humber, who has most ably fulfilled
a task requiring special care and ability to render it a success, which this edition most
certainly is. He has given the finishing touch to the volume by introducing into it
an interesting memoir of Professor Barlow, which tribute of respect, we are siwe, will
be appreciated by the members of the engineering profession." — Mechanic^ Magazine.

** A book which no engineer of any kind can afford to be without. In its present
form its former value is much increased." — Colliery Guardian.

" The best book on the subiect which has yet appeared. . . . . We know of

no work that so completely fulfils its mission As a scientific work of the

first class, it -deserves a foremost place on the bookshelves of every civil engineer and
practical mechanic." — English Mechanic.

** There is not a pupil in an engineering school, an apprentice in an engineer's or
architect's office^ or a competent clerk of works, who will not recognise in the scientific
volume newly given to circulation, an old and valued friend. . . So far as the strength
of timber is concerned, there is no greater authority than Barlow.** — Building Nevue.

" It is scarcely necessary for us to make any comment upon the first portion of

the new volume Valuable alike to die student, tyro, and experienced

practitioner, it will always rank in future, as it has hitherto done, as the standard
treatise upon this particular subject" — Engineer.

" The present edition offers some important advantages over previous ones. The
additions are both extensive and valuable, comprising experiments by Hodgkinson on
the strength of cast-iron ; extracts from papers on the transverse strength of beams by
W. H. Barlow ; an article on the strength of columns ; experiments by Fairbairn, on
iron and steel plates, on the behaviour of gu-ders subjected to the vibration of a
changing load, and on various cast and wrought-iron beams ; experiments by Kirkaldy,
on wrought-iron and steel bars, and a short appendix of formulae for ready application
in computing the strains on bridges." — Engineering,

WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 7

Strains yFormulcs & Diagrams for Calculation of

A HANDY BOOK for thfe CALCULATION of STRAINS
in GIRDERS and SIMILAR STRUCTURES, and their
STRENGTH ; consisting of Formulae and Corresponding Diagrams,
with numerous Details for Practical Application, &c. By William
H UMBER, Assoc. Inst. C.E., &c. Fcap. 8vo, with nearly 100
Woodcuts and 3 Plates, price yj. dd, cloth.

'I To supply a universally recognised want of simple formulae, applicable to the
varied problems to be met with in ordinary practice, Mr. Humber, ixmose works on
modem en^neerine afford sufficient evidence of his qualifications for the task, has
compiled his 'Han<fy Book.' The arrangement of the matter in this little volume is
as convenient as it well could be. . • • . The system of employing diagrams as a
substitute for complex computations is one justly coming into ^pieat favour, and in that
respect Mr. number's volume is fully up to the times." — Engineering.

" The formulae are neatly expressed, and the diagrams eocxL" — Aikeneeum,
*' That a necessity^ existed for the book is evident, we Uiink ; that Mr. Humber has
achieved his design is equally evident .... We heartily commend the reaXLy Aandy
book to our engineer and ardiitect readers." — English Mechanic,

Strains.

THE STRAINS ON STRUCTURES OF IRONWORK;
with Practical Remarks on Iron Construction. By F. W. Sheilds,
M. Inst. C.E. Second Edition, with 5 plates. Royal 8vo, y. cloth.

CoNTECNTS . — Introductory Remarks ; Beams Loaded at Centre ; Beams Loaded at
unequal distances between supports ; Beams tmiformly Loaded ; Girders with triangu-
lar bracing Loaded at centre ; Ditto, Loaded at unequal distances between supports ;
Ditto, uniformly Loaded; Calculation of the Strains on Girders with triangular
Basings ; Cantilevers ; Continuous Girders ; Lattice Girders ; Girders with Vertical
Struts and Diagonal Ties ; Calculation of the Strains on JDitto ; Bow and String
Girders ; Girders of a form not belonging to any regular figure ; Plate Girders ; Ap-
portionments of Material to Strain ; Comparison of different Girders ; Proportion of
Length to Depth of Girders ; Character ofthe Work ; Iron Roofs.

Construction of Iron BeamSy Pillars^ &c.

IRON AND HEAT, Exhibiting the Principles concerned in the
Construction of Iron Beams, Pillars, and Bridge Girders, and the
Action of Heat in the Smelting Furnace. By James Armour,
C.E. Woodcuts, i2mo, cloth boards, 3X. 6</. ; cloth limp, 2j. 6</.

\yust published.

Power in Motion,

POWER IN MOTION : Horse Power, Motion, Toothed Wheel
Gearing, Long and Short Driving Bands, Angular Forces, &c.
By James Armour, C.E. With 73 Diagrams. i2mo, doth
boards, 3^. 6^. \This day.

Trigonometrical Surveying,

AN OUTLINE OF THE METHOD OF CONDUCTING A
TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY, for the Formation of Geo-
graphical and Topographical Maps and Plans, Military Recon-
naissance, Levelling, &c., with the most useful Problems in Geodesy
and Practical Astronomy, and Formulae and Tables for Facilitating
their Calculation. By Major-General Frome, R.E., Inspector-
General of Fortifications, &c. Third Edition, revised and improred.
With 10 Plates and 113 Woodcuts. Royal 8vo, \2s, clotiu

8 WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO.

Hydraulics.

HYDRAULIC TABLES, CO-EFFICIENTS, and FORMULA
for finding the Discharge of Water from Orifices, Notches, Weirs,
Pipes, and Rivers. By John Neville, Civil Engineer, M.R.LA.
Second Edition, with extensive Additions, New Formulae, Tables,
and General Information on Rain-fall, Catchment-Basins, Drainage,
Sewerage, Water Supply for Towns and Mill Power. With nume-
rous Woodcuts, 8vo, 16}. cloth.

*»* This work contains a vast number of different hydraulic
formulae, and the most extensive and accurate tables yet published
for finding the mean velocity of discharge from triangular, quadri-
lateral, and circular orifices, pipes, and rivers ; with experimental
results and co-efficients ; effects of friction ; of the velocity of
approach ; and of curves, bends, contractions, and expansions ; the
best form of channel ; the drainage effects of long and 'short weirs,
and weir-basins ; extent of back-water from weirs ; contlacted
channels; catchment-basins; hydrostatic and hydraulic pr^ure;
water-power, &c &c.

Levelling.

A TREATISE on the PRINCIPLES and PRACTICE of
LEVELLING ; showing its Application to Purposes of Railway
and Civil Engineering, in the Construction of Roads ; with Mr.
Telford's Rules for the same. By Frederick W. Simms,
F.G.S., M. Inst. C.E. Fifth Edition, very carefully revised, with
the addition of Mr. Law's Practical Examples for Setting out
Railway Curves, and Mr. Trautwine's Field Practice of Laying
out Circular Curves. With 7 Plates and numerous Woodcuts. 8vo,
8x. (id, cloth. %* Trautwine on Curves, separate, price 5J.

" One of the most important text-books for the general surveyor, and there is
scarcely a question connected with levelling for which a solution would be sought but
that would be satisfactorily answered by consulting the volume."— AfiMzVt^ yournal.

*' The text-book on levelling in most of our engineering schools and colleges."—
Engineer.

** The publishers have rendered a substantial service to the profession, especially to
the younger members, by bringing out the present edition of Mr. Simms's useful work.**
'—Engineering.

Tunnelling.

PRACTICAL TUNNELLING ; explaining in Detail the Setting
out of the Works ; Shaft Sinking and Heading Driving ; Ranging
the Lines and Levelling Under-Ground ; Sub- Excavating, Timoer-
ing, and the construction of the Brickwork of Tunnels ; with the
Amount of Labour required for, and the Cost of the various Por-
tions of the Work. By Fredk. W. Simms, F.R.A.S., F.G.S.,
M. Inst C.E., Author of **A Treatise on the Principles and
Practice of Levelling," &c. &c. Second Edition, revised by W.
Davis Haskoll, Civil Engineer, Author of "The Engineer's
Field-Book," &c. &c. With 16 large folding Plates and numerous
Woodcuts. Imperial 8vo, i/. is. cloth.

WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 9

Strength of Cast IroUy &c.

A PRACTICAL ESSAY on the STRENGTH of CAST IRON
and OTHER METALS ; intended for the Assistance of Engineers,
Iron-Masters, Millwrights, Architects, Founders, Smiths, and
others engaged in the Construction of Machines, Buildings, &c. ;
containing Practical Rules, Tables, and Examples, founded on a
series of New Experiments ; with an Extensive Table of the Pro-
perties of Materials. By the late Thomas Tredgold, Mem. Inst.
C.E., Author of ** Elementary Principles of Carpentry," ** History
of the Steam-Engine," &c. Fifth Edition, much improved.
Edited by Eaton Hodgkinson, F.R.S. ; to which are added
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES on the STRENGTH and
OTHER PROPERTIES of CAST IRON ; with the Develop-
ment of New Principles, Calculations Deduced from them, and
Inquiries Applicable to Rigid and Tenacious Bodies generally. By
the Editor. The whole Illustrated with 9 Engravings and nume-
rous Woodcuts. 8vo, I2J. cloth.

*»* Hodgkinson's Experimental Researches on the
Strength and Other Properties of Cast Iron may be had
separately. With Engravings and Woodcuts. 8vo, price 6j. cloth.

The High-Pressure Steam Engine.

THE HIGH-PRESSURE STEAM ENGINE ; an Exposition

of its Comparative Merits, and an Essay towards an Improved

System of Construction, adapted especially to secure Safety and

Economy. By Dr. Ernst Alban, Practical Machine Maker,

Plau, Mecklenberg. Translated from the German, with Notes, by

Dr. Pole, F.R.S., M. Inst. C.E., &c. &c. With 28 fine Plates,

8vo, 16^". (id, cloth.

*' A work like this, which goes thoroughl^r into the examination of the high-pressure
engine, the boiler, and its appendages, &c., is exceedingly useAil, and deserves a place
in every scientific library. "---o"/tfa»« Shipping Chronicle,

Tables of Curves,

TABLES OF TANGENTIAL ANGLES and MULTIPLES
for setting out Curves from 5 to 200 Radius. By Alexander
Beazeley, M. Inst. C.E. Printed on 48 Cards, and sold in a
cloth box, waistcoat-pocket size, price 3^. 6^.

" Each table is printed on a small card, which, being placed on the theodolite, leaves
the hands free to manipulate the instnunent — no small advantage as regards the rapidity
of work. They are clearly printed, and compactly fitted into a small case for the
pocket — an arrangement that will recommend them to all practical men." — Bnginttr.

" Very handy : a man may know that all his day's work must fall on two of these
cards, which he puts into his own card-case, and leaves the rest h(iund,"^Aihemei4m,

Laying Out Curves.

THE FIELD PRACTICE of LAYING OUT CIRCULAR
CURVES for RAILROADS. By John C. Trautwine, C.E.,
of the United States (extracted from Simms's Work on Levelling).
8vo, 5j. sewed.

lo WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO.

Estimate and Price Book.

THE CIVIL ENGINEER'S AND CONTRACTOR'S ESTI-
MATE AND PRICE BOOK for Home or Foreign Service :
in reference to Roads, Railways, Tramways, Docks, Harbours,
Forts, Fortifications, Bridges, Aqueducts, Tunnels, Sewers, Water-
works, Gasworks, Stations, Barracks, Warehouses, &c. &c. &c.
With Specifications for Permanent Way, Tel^raph Materials,
Plant, Maintenance, and Working of a Railway ; and a Priced List
of Machinery, Plant, Tools, &c., required in the execution of Public
Works. By W. Davis Haskoll, C.E. Plates and numerous
Woodcuts. Published annually. Demy 8vo, cloth, dr.

As furnishing a variety of data on every conceivable want to civil engrineers and
ccmtractors, this book has ever stood perhaps unrivalled."— ^n:A£^^/, Jan. ax, xStz.

*' The care with which the particulars are arrang^ed reflects credit upon the autnor,
each subject being divided into tables under then: own special headsi, so that no
difficulty arises in finding the exact thin^ one wants. The value of the work to the
student and the experienced contractor is inestimable." — Mtchank^s Mag., Feb. 3.

" Mr. Haskoll has bestowed very great care upon the preparation of his estimates
and prices, and the work is one which appears to us to be in every way deserving of
confidence."— ^iM^Se^n^f Weekly Reporter^ Jan. 27, 1871.

Surveying (Land and Marine).

LAND AND MARINE SURVEYING, in Reference to the
Preparation of Plans for Roads and Railwa3rs, Canals, Rivers,
Towns* Water Supplies, Docks and Harbours ; with Description
and Use of Surveying Instruments. By W. Davis Haskoll, C. K,
Author of " The Engineer's Field Book," " Examples of Bridge
and Viaduct Construction," &c. Demy 8vo, price I2J. dd. cloth,
with 14 folding Plates, and numerous Woodcuts.

^ " ' Land and Marine Sinreying' b a most useful and well arranged book for the
aid of a student .... we can strongly recommend it as a carefully-written
and valuable text-book." — Builder^ July 14, 1868.

" He only who is master of his subject can present it in such a way as to make it
intdligible to the meanest capacity. It is in Uiis that Mr. Haskoll excels. He has
knowledge and experience, and can so give expression to it as to make any matter on
which he writes, clear to the youngest pupil m a siu^eyor's office. .... The
work will be found a useful one to men of experience, for there are few such who will
not get some good ideas from it ; but it is indispensable to the young practitioner."—
Coutery Guardian. May 9, z868.

" A volume which cannot fail to prove of the utmost practical utility. .... It
is one which may be safely recommended to all students who aspire to become clean
and expert surveyors ; and from the exhaustive manner in which Mr. Haskoll has
placed his long experience at the disposal of his readers, there will henceforth be no
excuse for the complaint that young practitioners are at a disadvantage, through the
neglect of their semors to point out the importance of minute details, since they can
readily supply the deficiency by the study of the voltmxe now under consideration."—*
Mining Joufnal^ May 5, x868.

Engineering Fieldwork.

THE PRACTICE OF ENGINEERING FIELDWORK,
applied to Land and Hydraulic, Hydrographic, and Submarine
Surveying and Levelling. Second Edition, revised, with consider-
able additions, and a Supplementary Volume on WATER-
WORKS, SEWERS, SEWAGE, and IRRIGATION. By W.
Davis Haskoll, C.E. Numerous folding Plates. Demy Svo, 2
vols, in one, cloth boards, i/. \s, (published at 2/. 4^.)

WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. ii

Fire Engineering.

FIRES, FIRE-ENGINES, AND FIRE BRIGADES. With
a History of Manual and Steam Fire -Engines, their Construc-
tion, Use, and Management ; Remarks on Fire-Proof Build-
ings, and the Preservation of Life from Fire ; Statistics of the Fire
Appliances in English Towns ; Foreign Fire Systems ; Hints for
the formation of, and Rules for, Fire Brigades ; and an Account of
American Steam Fire-Engines. By Charles F. T. Young, C.E.,
Author of " The Economy *of Steam Power on Common Roads,"
&c With numerous Illustrations, Diagrams, &c., handsomely
printed, 544 pp. , demy 8vo, price i/. 41. cloth.

" A large well-fUIed and useful book upon a subject which possesses a wide and

increasing public interest To such of our readers as are interested in the

subject of nres and fire apparatus we can most heartily commend thisboolc ....
It IS really the only Engli^ work we now have upon me subject." — EngineerUtg.

** Mr. Youn^ has proved by his pfe.sent work that he is a good engineer, and pes- '
sessed of sufficient literary energy to produce a very readable and interesting volume."
— JSf^ifuer.

"A volume which must be reearded as the text-boolc of its subject, and whidi in
point of interest and intrinsic value is second to no contribution to a special depart-
ment of history with which we are acquainted. * Fires, Fire-Engines, and fire
Brigades ' is the production of an earnest and diligent writer who comes to the task he
has undertaken with a thorough love of it, and a firm determination to do it justice.

.... The style of the work is admirable It has the surpassing

merit of being thoroughly reliable." — Ittsurance Record,

"Great credit is unquestionably due to Mr. Young for having brought before die
public the results of his exploration in Uiis hitherto untrodden field. We strongly
recommend the book to Uie notice of all who are in any way interested in fires, m«-
engines, or fire-brigades." — Mechanics* Magazine.

Maniml of Mining Tools.

MINING TOOLS. For the use of Mine Managers, Agents,
Mining Students, &c. By William Morgans, Lecturer on Prac-
tical Mining at the Bristol School of Mines. i2mo. With an
Atlas of Plates, containing 2CX) Illustrations. 4to. VJust ready.

Earthwork^ Measurement and Calculation of.

A MANUAL on EARTHWORK. By Alex. T. S. Graham,
C.E., Resident Engineer, Forest of Dean Central Railway. With
numerous Diagrams. i8mo, zs, 6d. doth.

" We can cordially recommend the work to the notice of our rtzdtJS.^-'Building
News.

" As a really handy book for reference, we know of no work equal to it ; and the
railway engineers and others employed in the measurement and calculation of earth-
work wiU mid a great amount of practical information very admirably arranged, and
available for general or rough estimates, as well as for the more exact ca^ilations
required in the engineers' contractor's offices."— ylr/ua«.

" The object of this little book is an investigation of all the prindi^es requisite for
the measurement and calculation of earthworks, and a consideration of the data neces-
sary for such operations. The author has evidiently bestowed much care in effecting
this object, ana points out with much deamess the results of his own observations,
derived from practical experience. The subjects treated of are accompanied by well-
executed diagrams and instructive examples. — Army and Naxy Goxettc.

12 - WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO.

Field-Book for Engineers.

THE ENGINEER'S, MINING SURVEYOR'S, and CON-
TRACTOR'S FIELD-BOOK. By W. Davis Haskoll, CivU
Engineer. Second Edition, much enlarged, consisting of a Series
of Tables, with Rules, Explanations of Systems, and Use of Theo-
dolite for Traverse Surveying and Plotting the Work with minute
accuracy by means of Straight Edge and Set Square only ; Levelling
with the Theodolite, Castmg out and Reducing Levels to Datum,
and Plotting Sections in the ordinary manner ; Setting out Curves
with the Theodolite by Tangential Angles and Multiples with Right
and Lefl-hand Readings of the Instrument; Setting out Curves
without Theodolite on the System of Tangential Angles by Sets of
Tangents and Offsets ; and Earthwork Tables to 80 feet deep cal-
culated for every 6 inches in depth. With numerous wood-cuts,
l2mo, price 12s. cloth.

**A very useful work for the practical engineer and surveyor. Every person
engaged in engineering field^ operations will estimate the importance of such a work
and the amount of valuable time which will be saved by reference to a set of reliable
tables prepared with the accuracy and fulness of those given in this volume." — Rail-
way News.

"The book is very handy, and the author might have added that the separate tables
of sines and tangents to every minute will make it useful for many other purposes, the
genuine traverse tables existmg all the same/' — Athenaum.

" The work forms a handsome pocket volume, and cannot fail, from its portability
and utility, to be extensively patronised by the engineering "ptoiessAxm.— Mining
youma/,

*' We know of no better field-book of reference or collection of tables than that
Mr. Haskoll has given/' — Artizan.

'* A series of tables likely to be very useful to many civil ^n^ca&Gc^**— Building News.

** A very useful book of tables for expediting field-work operations. . . . The present
edition has been much enlarged." — Mechanic^ Magazine.

** We strongly recommend this second edidon of Mr. Haskoll's * Field Book' to all
classes of surveyors." — ColUety Guardian.

Railway Engineering.

THE PRACTICAL RAILWAY ENGINEER. A concise
Description of the Engineering and Mechanical Operations and
Structures which are combined in the Formation of Railways for
Public Traffic ; embracing an Account of the Principal Works exe-
cuted in the Construction of Railways ; with Facts, Figures, and
Data, intended to assist the Civil Engineer in designing and executing
the important details required. By G. Drysdale Dempsey, C.E.
Fourth Edition, revised and greatly extended. With 71 double
quarto Plates, 72 Woodcuts, and Portrait of George Stephenson.
One laige voL 4to, 2/. \2s. dd. cloth.

Harbours.

THE DESIGN and CONSTRUCTION of HARBOURS. By
Thomas Stevenson, F.R.S.E., M.I. C.E. Reprinted and en-
larged from the Article "Harbours," in the Eighth Edition of " The
Encyclopaedia Britannica." With 10 Plates and numerous Cuts.
^ 8vo, lar. dd, cloth.

WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 13

* ■ _ U LJ_1 I - II I I ■ I II I

Bridge Construction in Masonry^ Timber^ and
Iron.

EXAMPLES OF BRIDGE AND VIADUCT CONSTRUC-
TION OF MASONRY, TIMBER, AND IRON ; consisting of
46 Plates from the Contract Drawings or Admeasurement of select
Works. By W. Davis Haskoll, C.E. Second Edition, with
the addition of 554 Estimates, and the Practice of Setting out Works,
illustrated with 6 pages of Diagrams. Imp. 4to, price 2/. I2r. ^
half-morocco.

" One of the very few works extant descending to the level of ordinary routine, and
treating on the common cvery-day practice of the railway engineer. ... A work of
the present nature by a man of Mr. Haskoll's experience, must prove invaluable to
hundreds. Ihe tables of estimates appended to this edition will considerably enhance
its y^Xyx^**-— Engineering.

** We must express our cordial approbation of the work just issued by Mr. Haskoll.
.... Besides examples of the best aud most economical forms of bridge construction,
the author has compiled a series of estimates which cannot fail to be of service to the
practical man. . . . The examples of bridges aie selected from those of the most notaUe
construction on the different lines of the kingdom, and their details may consequently
be safely followed.'*— i?a«7wtfy News.

*' A very valuable volume, and may be added usefully to the library of every youn|;
engineer. —Builder.

*' An excellent selection of examples, very carefully drawn to useful scales of pro-
portion. "* — A riizan.

Mathematical and Drawing Instruments,

A TREATISE ON THE PRINCIPAL MATHEMATICAL
AND DRAWING INSTRUMENTS employed by the Engmeer,
Architect, and Surveyor. By Frederick W. Simms, F.G.S., M.
Inst. C.E., Author of "Practical TunnelHng," &c. &c. Third
Edition, with a Description of the Theodolite, together with Instruc-
tions in Field Work, compiled for the use of Students on commenc-
ing practice. With numerous Cuts. i2mo, price y, 6d. cloth.

Oblique Arches.

A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE CONSTRUCTION of
OBLIQUE ARCHES. By John Hart. Third Edition, with
Plates. Imperial 8vo, price &f. cloth.

*^j* The small remaining stock of this work^ which has been un^
obtainable for some time^ hasjustbeenpur(hasedbylx>CK'WQOi> & Ca.

Oblique Bridges.

A PRACTICAL and THEORETICAL ESSAY on OBLIQUE
BRIDGES, with 13 large folding Plates. By Geo. Watson
Buck, M. Inst. C.E. Second Edition, corrected by W. H.
Barlow, M. Inst, C.E. Imperial 8vo, I2J. cloth.

"The standard text-book for all engineers regarding skew arches, is Mr. Buck's
treatise, and it would be impossible to consult a better."— Engifieer.

•* A very complete treatise on the subject, re-edited by Mr. Barlow, who has added
to it a method of making the requisite calculations without the iise of trigonometrical
fo rmulae." — Builder.

14 WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO.

WeaUs Series of Rudimentary Works.

These highly popnlar and cheap Beriea of Books, now oomprisixig
upwards of Two Hundred and Fifty distinct Works in almost erery
department of Science, Art, and Sduoation, are recommended to the
notice of Bngineers, Architects, Builders, Artizana, and Btndents gene-
xally, as well as to those interested in Workmen's UbrarieB, Free
Zdbraries, liiterary and Scientific Institntions, Ck>llege8, Sohools, Science
COaases, ftc, fto. Iiists of the seyeral Series may be had on apidication
io IjOOKWOOD ft CO.

The following is a Selection of the Works on Civil Engifieering : —

STEAM ENGINE. By Dr. Lardneb. ix.

TUBULAR AND IRON GIRDER BRIDGES, including the Britannia and
Conway Bridges. By G. D. Dempsey. \s. 6d.

STEAM BOILERS, their Construction and Management. By R. Armstrong.
With Additions, is. 6d.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. By Sir M. Stephenson. New JSditum, «. ^

STEAM ENGINE, Mathematical Theory of. By T. Baker, xs.

ENGINEER'S GUIDE TO THE ROYAL AND MERCANTILE NAVIES.
By a Practical Engineer. Revised by D. F. McCarthy. 3j.

LIGHTHOUSES, their Construction and Illumination. By Alan Stevenson. 3^

CRANES AND MACHINERY FOR RAISING HEAVY BODIES, the Art of
Constructing. By J. Glynn, i*.

CIVIL ENGINEERING. By H. Law and G. R. Burnell. New EdiiioK, ss.
DRAINING DISTRICTS AND LANDS. By G. D. Dempsey. zs.6d, | The
DRAINING AND SEWAGE OF TOWNS AND BUILDINGS. By fa vols, mr,
G. D. Dempsey. a*. J 3*«

WELL-SINKING, BORING, AND PUMP WORK. By J. G. Swindell ;
Revised by G. R. Burnell. is.

ROAD-MAKING AND MAINTENANCE OF MACADAMISED ROADS.
By Gen. Sir J. Burgoyne. is. 6d.

AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING, BUILDINGS. MOTIVE POWERS.
FIELD MACHINES, MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS. By G. H.
Andrews, C.E. y,

ECONOMY OF FUEL. By T. S. Prideaux. i*. 6d.

EMBANKING LANDS FROM THE SEA. By J. Wiggins, ax.

WATER POWER, as applied to Mills, &c By J. Glynn. 2*.

GAS WORKS, AND THE PRACTICE OF MANUFACTURING AND
DISTRIBUTING COAL GAS. By S. Hughes, C.E. 3*.

WATERWORKS FOR THE SUPPLY OF CITIES AND TOWNS. By S.
Hughes, C.E. y.

SUBTERRANEOUS SURVEYING, AND THE MAGNETIC VARIATION
OF THE NEEDLE. By T. Fenwick, with Additions by T. Baker, a*. 6d,

CIVIL ENGINEERING OF NORTH AMERICA. By D. Steyenson. y.

HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING. By G. R. Burnell. 3*.

RIVERS AND TORRENTS, with the Method of Regulating their Course and
ChaniMb, Navigable Canals, &c., from the Italian of Paul Frisi. ar. 6«/.

COMBUSTION OF COAL AND THE PREVENTION OF SMOKE. By
C. Wye Williams, M.I.CE. 3*.

WATER POWER, as applied to Mills, &c By J. Glynn. 2*.

MARINE ENGINES and STEAM VESSELS and the SCREW. By Robbst
Murray, C.E. Fifth Edition, y.

ENGINEER'S GUIDE TO THE ROYAL AND MERCANTILE NAVIES.
By a Practical Engineer. Revised by D. F. McCarthy.

WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 15

ARCHI TECTUR E, &c.

♦

Construction.

THE SCIENCE of BUILDING : an Elementary Treatise on
the Principles of Construction. Especially adapted to the Re-
quirements of Architectural Students. By E. Wyndham Tarn,
M.A., Architect. Illustrated with 47 Wood Engravings. Demy
8vo, price 8j. 6d, cloth. [Recently published,

** A very valuable book, which we strongly recommend to all students." — Builder.

*' A modest and valuable book of reference for the student. . . I The formulae wUl
be foimd perfectly intelligible and available by the class for whom they are intended.**-^
Athefueutn,

"While Mr. Tam*s valuable little volume is quite sufficiently scientific to answer
the purposes intended, it is written in a style that will deservedly make it popular.
The diagrams are numerous and exceedingly well executed, and the treatise does
credit alike to the author and the publisher.']-— ^«,^t«^^ Feb. 17, 1871.

**No architectural student should be without this hand-book of constructional
knowledge." — Architect.

"The book is very far from being a mere compilation ; it is an able digest of
information which is only to be found scattered through various works, and contaixB
more really original writing than many ptittmg forth far stronger claims to orieinality.
.... Mr. Tarn has done his work exceedin^^ly well, and hie has produced a bo^
which ought to earn him the thanks of all architectural students." — Engineering.

Beaton* s Pocket Estimator.

THE POCKET ESTIMATOR FOR THE BUILDING
TRADES, being an easy method of estimating the various parts
of a Building collectively, more especially applied to Carpenters'
and Joiners' work, priced according to the present value of material
and labour. By A. C. Beaton, Author of * Quantities and
Measurements.* Numerous Woodcuts. \In the Press.

Villa Architecture.

A HANDY BOOK of VILLA ARCHITECTURE ; being a
Series of Designs for Villa Residences in various Styles. With
Detailed Specifications and Estimates. By C WiCKES, Architeot,
Author of " The Spires and Towers of the Mediaeval Churches of
England," &c. First Series, consisting of 30 Plates ; Second
Series, 31 Plates. Complete in i vol., 4to, price 2/. icxf. half
morocco. Either Series separate, price i/. yj*. each, half morocco.
' The whole of the designs bear evidence of their being the work of an artistic

<(<

architect, and they will prove very valuable and suggestive to architects, students, and
amateurs." — Building News.

The Architect's Guide.

THE ARCHITECT'S GUIDE ; or. Office and Pocket Com-
panion for Engmeers, Architects, Land and Building Survejrors,
Contractors, Builders, Clerks of Works, &c By W. Davis
Haskoll, C.E., R. W. Billings, Architect, F. Rogers, and
P. Thompson. With numerous Experiments by G. Rennis,
C.E., &c. Woodcuts, i2mo, cloth, price y. 6</.

Vitruviui Architecture.

THE ARCHITECTURE OF MARCUS VITRUVIUS
POLLIO. Translated by Joseph Gwilt, F.S.A.^ F.lB^k*^,
Numerous Plates. i2mo, cloth limp, pivc.^ V»

i€ WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO.

The Young Architect's Book.

HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS ; comprising Advice to
those who, while yet at school, are destined to the Profession ; to
such as, having passed their pupilage, are about to travel ; and to
those who, having completed their education, are about to practise.
By George Wightwick, Architect, Author of "The Palace of
Architecture," &c. &c. Second Edition. With numerous Wood-
cuts. 8vo, 7^., extra cloth.

Drawing for Builders and Students.

PRACTICAL RULES ON DRAWING for the OPERATIVE
• BUILDER and YOUNG STUDENT in ARCHITECTURK
By George Pyne, Author of a ** Rudimentary Treatise on Per-
spective for Beginners." With 14 Plates, 4to, *js. 6^/., boards.

Contents. — I. Practical Rules on Drawing — Outlines. II. Ditto— the Grecian
and Roman Orders. III. Practical Rules on Drawing — Perspective. IV. Practical
Rules on Light and Shade. V. Practical Rules on Colour, &c &c.

Drawing for Engineers^ &c.

THE WORKMAN'S MANUAL OF ENGINEERING
DRAWING. By John Maxton, Instructor in Engineering
Drawing, South Kensington. With upwards of 300 Plates and
Diagrams. i2mo, cloth, strongly bound, 4J. 6d. [Tikis day.

Cottages, Villas, and Country Houses.

DESIGNS and EXAMPLES of COTTAGES, VILLAS, and
COUNTRY HOUSES ; being the Studies of several eminent
Architects and Builders ; consisting of Plans, Elevations, and Per-
spective Views ; with approximate Estimates of the Cost of each.
In 4to, with 67 plates, price i/. u., cloth.

Weale's Builders and Contractor's Price Book.

THE BUILDER'S AND CONTRACTOR'S PRICE BOOK
(LocKWOOD & Co.'s, formerly Weale's). Published Annually.
Containing Prices for Work in all branches of the Building Trade,
with Items numbered for easy reference, and an Appendix of
Tables, Notes, and Memoranda, arranged to afford detailed infor-
mation, commonly required in preparing Estimates, &c. Originally
Edited by the late Geo. R. Burnell, C.E., &c. i2mo, 41., doth.

" A multitudinous variety of useful information for builders and contractors

With its aid the prices for all work connected with the building trade may be eslci-
TtaXnA.^*— Building News.

** Carefully revised, admirably arranged, and clearly printed, it offers at a glance a
ready method of preparing an estimate or specification upon a basis that is unquesticm-
able. A reliable book of reference in the event of a dispute between employer and
mmployed."—E n£ineer.

*' Well done and reliable. It is the duty of a just .critic to point out where any
improvement can be made in any work, but Mr. Burnell has anticipated all objectioBS
an his clearly-printed book. We therefore recommend it to all branches of the pro-
fession." — English Mechanic.

• "Mr. Burnell has omitted nothine from this work that could tend to render it
valuable to the builder or contractor.' — Mechanic's Magazine,

WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 17

Handbook of Specifications.

THE HANDBOOK OF SPECIFICATIONS; or, Practical
Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder, in drawing
up Specifications and Contracts for Works and Constructions.
Illustrated by Precedents of Buildings actually executed by eminent
Architects and Engineers. Preceded by a Preliminary Essay, and
Skeletons of Specifications and Contracts, &c., &c., and explained
by numerous Lithograph Plates and Woodcuts. By Professor
Thomas L. Donaldson, President of the Royal Institute of British
Architects, Professor of Architecture and Construction, University
College, London, M.I.B.A., Member of the various European
Academies of the Fine Arts. With A Review of the Law of
Contracts, and of the Responsibilities of Architects, Engineers^
and Builders. By W. Cunningham Glen, Barrister-at-Law, of
the Middle Temple. 2 vols., 8vo, with upwards of 1 100 pp. of
text, and 33 Lithographic Plates, cloth, 2/. 2x. (Published at 4/.)

" In these two volumes of x,zoo P^cs (together), forty-four specifications of executed
works are given, including the specifications for parts of the new Houses of Parliament^
by Sir Charles Barry, and for the new Royal Exchange, by Mr. Tite, M.P. The
latter, in particular, is a very complete and remarkable document It embodies, to a
great extent, as Mr. Donaldson mentions, ' the bill of quantities, with the description
of the works,' and occupies more than loo printed pages.

" Amongst the other known buildings, the specifications of which are giveit, are
the Wiltshire Lunatic Asylum (Wyatt and Brandon) ; Tothill Fields Prison (R. Abra-
ham) ; the City Prison, HoUoway (Bunning) ; the High School, Edinburgh (Hamilton) ;
Clothworkers' Hall, London (Angel) ; Wellington College, Sandhurst (J. Shaw) ;
Houses in Grosvenor Square, and elsewhere ; St George's Church, JDoncaster
(Scott) ; several works of smaller size by the Author, including Messrs. Shaw's Ware*
ho{ise in Fetter Lane, a veiy successful elevation ; the Newcastle-upon-Tyne Railway
Station (J. Dobson) ; new Westminster Bridge (Page) ; the Hi^ Level Bridge, New«-
castle (R. Stephenson} ; various works on the Great Northern Railway (mydone) ;
and one Frencn specification for Houses in the Rue de Rivoli, Paris (MM. Armand,
Hittorff, Pellechet, and Rohault de Fleury, architects). The last is a very elaborate
composition, occupying seventy pages. The majority of the specifications have illus-
trations in the shape of elevations and plans.

** We are most glad to have the present work. It is valuable as a record, and more
valuable still as a book of precedents.

"About 140 pages of the second volume are appropriated to an exposition of the
law in relation to uie legal liabilities of engineers, architects, contractors, and builders,
by Mr. W. Cunningham Glen, Barrister-at-law ; intended rather fur those persons
than for the legal practitioner. Suffice it, in conclusion, to say in words wnat our
readers will have gathered for themselves from the particulars we have g^ven, that
Donaldson's Handbook of Specifications must be bought by all architects." — Bulkier ,

Mechanical Engineering.

A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON MECHANICAL ENGI-
NEERING : comprising Metallurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging,
Tools, Workshop Machinery, Mechanical Manipulation, Manufac-
ture of the Steam Engine, &c. &c. "With an Appendix on the
Analysis of Iron and Iron Ore, and Glossary of Terms. By Francis
Campin, C.E. Illustrated with 91 Woodcuts and 28 Plates of
Slotting, Shaping, Drilling, Punching, Shearing, and Riveting
Machines — Blast, Refining, and Reverberatory Furnaces — Steam
Engines, Governors, Boilers, Locomotives, &c. Demy 8vo^cU^<bL^
price \2s.

i8

WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO.

Grantham s Iron Ship-Buildings enlarged.

ON IRON SHIP-BUILDING ; with Practical Examples and
Details. Fifth Edition. Imp. 4to, boards, enlarged from 24 to 40
Plates (21 quite new), including the latest Examples. Together
with separate Text, i2mo, cloth limp, also considerably enlarged.
By John Grantham, M. Inst C.E., &c Price 2/. 2x. complete.

Description of Plates,

3.
3-

4«-
5-

7.

8.

10.

21.
12.

13.
150,

Hollow and Bar Keds, Stem and
Stem Posts. [Pieces.

Side Frames, Floorings, and Bilge

Floorings coHiinued—^ctXsanSt Deck
Beams, Gunwales, and Stringers.

Gunwales continued — Lower Decks,
and Orlop Beams.

Gunwales and Deck Beam Iron.

Angle-Iron, T Iron, Z Iron, Bulb
Iron, as KoUed for Building.

Rivets, shown in section, natural size ;
Flush and Lapped ^ Joints, with
Single and Double Riveting.

Plating, three plans ; Bulkheads and
Modes of Securing them.

Inm Masts, with Longitudinal and
Transverse Sections.

Slidins Keel, Water Ballast.Moulding
die Frames in Iron Ship Building,
Levelling Plates.

Longitudinal Section, and Half-
breadth Deck Plan of Large Vessels
on a reduced Scale.

Midship Sections of Three Vessels.

Large Vessel, showing DeXxiHs—Fore
End in Section, and End View,
with Stem Post, Cratches, &c.

Large P^^«ftf/,showing Details — After
End in Section, with End View,
Stem Frame for Screw, and Rudder.

Lar^e P^^jj^/, showing Details— il/»c/-
ship SectumAoM breadth.

Machines for Punching and Shearing
Plates and Angle-Iron, and for
Bending Plates ; Rivet Hearth.

Beam-B^iiding Machine, Indepen-
dent Shearmg, Punching and Angle-
Iron Machine.

15^. Double Lever Pimdiing and Shearing
Machine, arranged for cutting
Angle and T Iron, with Dividing
Table and Engine.

JlfocAM^f.— <}arf(Hth*s Rivetii^ BCa-
chine. Drilling and Counter-Sinldng
Machine.

Plate Planing Machine.

Air Furnace for Heattnff Plates and
Angle-Iron : Various luxxls used in
Riveting and Plating.

Guftwale ; Keel and Flooring ; Plan
for Sheathing with Copper.
180. Grantham's Improved Puui of Sheatb*
ing Iron Ships with Copper.

Illustrations of the Mag^nedc Condi-
tion of various Iron Ships.

Gray's Floating Compass and Bin-
nacle, Mrith Adjusting Masmets, ftc

Corroded Iron Bolt in Fiame of
Wooden Ship ; Jointing Plates.
Great Eastern — Longitudinal Sec-
tions and Half-breadth Plans--Mid-
ship Section, with Details — Se^ion
in Engine Room, and Paddle Boze&
Paddle Steam Vessel of Steel.
27. Scarbrough—Vei'd^lt Vessel of SteeL
28-9. Proposed Passenger Steamer.
30. Persian — Iron Screw Steamer.

Midship Section of H.M. Steam
Frigate, Warrior.

Midship Section of H.M. Steam
Frigate, HercuUs.

Stem, Stem, and Rudder of H.M.
Steam Frigate, BelUrophmt,

Midship Section of H.M. Troop Ship^
Sera^is.

Iron Floating Dock.

16.
x6a,

z8.

19.

20.

sx.

22-4.

25-6.

at.
32.
33.
34.

35

"An enlarged edition of an elaborately illustrated work." — Builder, July ii, z868.

" This edition of Mr. Grantham's work has been enlarged and improved, both with
respect to the text and the eng;Tavings bein^ brought down to the present period. . . .
The practical operations required in producing a ^ipare described and illustrated with
care and precision." — Mechanics* Magazine, July 17, 1868.

" A thoroughly practical work, and every question of the many in relation to iron
shipping which sulmit of diversity of opinion, or have various and conflicting perscmal
interests attached to them, is treated with sober and impartial wisdom and good sense.
. . . . As good a volume for the instruction of the pupil or student of iron naval
architecture as can be found in any language." — Practical Mechanic's youma/,
August, x868.

" A veiy elaborate work. . . . It forms a most valuable addition to the history
•f iron shipbuilding, while its having been prepared by one who has made the subject
his study for many years, and whose qualifications have been repeatedly recognised,
will recommend it as one of practical utility to all interested in &hxpbvdidiag,**~^Army
ami Navy Gaxette, July zx, x868.

WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 19

CARPENTRY, TIMBER, &c.

«

Tredgold^s Carpentry, new & enlarged Edition.

THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF CARPENTRY :
a Treatise on the Pressure and EJquilibrium of Timber Framing, the
Resistance of Timber, and the Construction of Floors, Arches,
Bridges, Roofs, Uniting Iron and Stone with Timber, &c. To which
is added an Essay on the Nature and Properties of Timber, &a,
with Descriptions of the Kinds of Wood used in Building ; also
numerous Tables of the Scantlings of Timber for diJBferent purposes,
the Specific Gravities of Materials, &c. By Thomas Tredgold,
C.E. Edited by Peter Barlow, F.R.S. Fifth Edition, cor-
rected and enlarged. With 64 Plates (i i of which now first appear
in this edition), Portrait of the Author, and several Woodcuts. In
I vol., 4to, published at 2/. 2x., reduced to i/. 5^., cloth.

** * Tredgold's Carpentry* ought to be in every architect's and every builder's
librarv, and those who do not ahready possess it ought to avail themselves of the new
v&^yxt.— Builder f April 9, 1870.

A work whose monumental excellence must commend it wherever skilful car-
pentry is concerned. The Author's principles are rather confirmed than impaired by
time, and, as now presented, combine the surest base with the most interesting display
of progressive science. The additional plates are of great intrinsic value." — BuiuUng
NewSf Feb. 25, 1870.

" 'Tredgold's Carpentry' has ever held a high position, and the issue of the fiftih
edition, in a still more improved and enlarged form, will give satisfaction to a very
large number of artisans who desire to raise themselves m their business, and who
seek to do so by displaying a greater amount of knowledge and intelligence than thdr
fellow-workmen. It is as complete a work as ne«l be desired. To the superior
workman the volume will prove mvaluable ; it contains treatises written in language
which he will readily comprehend." — Mining Joumalt Feb. 12, x87a

Grandys Timber Tables.

THE TIMBER IMPORTER'S, TIMBER MERCHANTS,

and BUILDER'S STANDARD GUIDE. By Richard E.

Grandy. Comprising : — An Analysis of Deal Standards, Home

and Foreign, with comparative Values and Tabular Arrangements

for Fixing Nett Landed Cost on Baltic and North American DeaU,

including all intermediate Expenses, Freight, Insurance, Duty, &c.,

&c. ; together with Copious Information for the Retailer and

Builder. i2mo, price *js. 6d. cloth.

*' Everything it pretends to be : built up gradually, it leads one from a forest to a
trenail, and throws in, as a makeweight, a host of material concerning bricks, columns,
cisterns, &c. — sdl that the class to whom it appeals requires." — English Mechanic.

" The only difficulty we have is as to what is not in its pages. What we have tested
of the contents, t^en at random, is invariably correct." — Illustrated Buildei^sJoumaL

Tables for Packing-Case Makers.

PACKING-CASE TABLES; showing the number of Superficial

Feet in Boxes or Packing-Cases, firom six inches square and

upwards. Compiled by William Richardson, Accountant.

Oblong 4to, cloth, price 3J. dd,

"Will save much labour and calculation to packing-case makers and those who uie
packing-cases."— Otfcrr. " Invaluable labour-savins tabl«&." — Irontnoni^er.

20 WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO.

NicholsorCs Carpenter* s Guide.

THE CARPENTER'S NEW GUIDE ; or, BOOK of LINES
for CARPENTERS : comprising all the Elementary Principles
essential for acquiring a knowledge of Carpentry. Founded on the
late Peter Nicholson's standard work. A new Edition, revised
by Arthur Ashpitel, F.S.A., together with Practical Rules on
Drawing, by George Pyne. With 74 Plates, 4to, i/. u. cloth.

Dowsing s Timber Merchant's Companion.

THE TIMBER MERCHANT'S AND BUILDER'S COM-
PANION ; containing New and Copious Tables of the Reduced
Weight and Measurement of Deals and Battens, of all sizes, from
One to a Thousand Pieces, and the relative Price that each size
bears per Lineal Foot to any given Price per Petersburgh Standard
Hundred ; the Price per Cube Foot of Square Timber to any given
Price per Load of 50 Feet ; the proportionate Value of Deals and
Battens by the Standard, to Square Timber by the Load of 50 Feet ;
the readiest mode of ascertaining the Price of Scantling per Lineal
Foot of any size, to any given Figure per Cube Foot. Also a
variety of other valuable information. By William Dowsing,
Timber Merchant. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 3J. cloth.

*' Everything is as concise and clear as it can possibly be made. There can be no
doubt that every timber merchant and builder ought to possess it, because such possession
would, with use, unquestionably save a very great deal of time, and, moreover, ensure
perfect accuracy in calculations. There is also another class besides these who ought
to possess it ; we mean all persons engaged in carrying wood,' where it is requisite to
ascertain its weight. Mr. Dowsing's tables provide an easy means of doing thb.
Indeed every person who has to do with wood ought to have it." — Hull Advertiser,

MECHANICS, &c.

Mechanics Workshop Companion.

THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP COM-
PANION, and THE SCIENTIFIC GENTLEMAN'S PRAC-
TICAL ASSISTANT \ comprising a great variety of the most
useful Rules in Mechanical Science ; with numerous Tables of Prac-
tical Data and Calculated Results. By W. Templeton, Author
of "The Engineer's, Millwright's, and Machinist's Practical As-
sistant." Tenth Edition, with Mechanical Tables for Operative
Smiths, Millwrights, Engineers, &c. ; together with several Useful
and Practical Rules in Hydraulics and Hydrodynamics, a variety
of Experimental Results, and an Extensive Table of Powers and
Roots. II Plates. i2mo, 5^*. bound. \Just piiblished,

" As a text-book of reference, in which mechanical and commercial demands are
judiciously met, Templeton's Companion stands unrivalled." — Mechanic^ MagtuUne.

" Admirably adapted to the wants of a very larg^e class. It has met with great
success in the engineering workshop, as we can testify ; and there are a great many
men who, in a great measure, owe their rise in life to this little work." — Buitaing New$.

WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 21

engineers Assistant.

THE ENGINEER'S, MILLWRIGHT'S, and MACHINIST'S
PRACTICAL ASSISTANT ; comprising a Collection of Useful
Tables, Rules, and Data.' Compiled and Arranged, with Original
Matter, by W. Templeton. 4th Edition. i8mo, 2s,td, cloth.

" So much varied information compressed into so small a space, and published at a
-ice which places it within the reach of the humblest mechanic, cannot fail to com-
and the sale which it deserves. With the utmost confidence we commend this book
I the attention of our readers."'— Mechanics* Magazine,

** Every mechanic should become the possessor of the volume, and a more suitable
resent to an apprentice to any of the mechanical trades could not possibly be made."
•Building ^ews,

lesigning^ Measuring^ and Valuing.

THE STUDENT'S GUIDE to the PRACTICE of MEA-
SURING, and VALUING ARTIFICERS' WORKS; containing
Directions for taking Dimensions, Abstracting the same, and bringing
the Quantities into Bill, with Tables of Constants, and copious
Memoranda for the Valuation of Labour and Materials in the res-
pective Trades of Bricklayer and Slater, Carpenter and Joiner,
Painter and Glazier, Paperhanger, &c. With 43 Plates-and Wood-
cuts. Originally edited by Edward lioBSON, Architect. New
Edition, re-written, with Additions on Mensuration and Construc-
tion, and several useful Tables for facilitating Calculations and
Measurements. By E. Wyndham Tarn, M.A., Architect. 8vo,
lor. 6</. cloth. [Just published,

** This useful book should be in every architect's and builder's office. It contains
vast amount of information absolutely necessary to be known." — The Irish Builder.

** The book is well worthy the attention of the student in architecture and surveying,
s bjr the careful study of tt his progress in his profesaon will be much facilitated."-^
fining Journal, Feb. xz, X87Z.

" Wc have failed to discover anythine connected with the building trade, from ex-
avating foundations to bell-hanging, mat is not fully treated upon in this valuable
oik.** — The Ariizan, March, 1871.

" Mr. Tarn has well performed the task imposed upon him, and has made many
irther and valuable additions, embodying; a large amount of information relating to
le technicalities and modes of construction employed in the several branches of the

uilding trade. From the extent of the information which the volume

mbodies, and the care taken to secure accuracy in every detail, it cannot fail to prove
f the highest value to students, whether training in the offices of provincial surveyors,
r in those of London practitioners." — Colliery Guardian, February loth, 1871.

" Altogether the book is one which well fulfils the promise of its title-pa^e, and we
an thoroughly recommend it to the class for whose use it has been compiled. Mr.
'am's additions and revisions have much increased the usefulness of the work, and
ave especially augmented its value to students. Finally, it is only just to the pub-
shers to add that the book has been got up in excellent style, the typography being
old and clear, and the plates very well executed." — Engineering, March 24, 1871.

"Superficial Measurement.

THE TRADESMAN'S GUIDE TO SUPERFICIAL MEA-
SUREMENT. Tables calculated from i to 200 inches in length,
by I to 108 inches in breadth. For the use of Architects, Surveyors,
Engineers, Timber Merchants, Builders, &c. By James Haw-
kings. Fcp. 3J. dd, cloth.

22 WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO.

MATHEMATICS, &c.

Gregory s Practical MatJiematics.

MATHEMATICS for PRACTICAL MEN ; being a Common-
place Book of Pure and Mixed Mathematics. Designed chiefly
for the Use of Civil Engineers, Architects, and Surveyois. Part I.
Pure Mathematics— comprising Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry,
Mensuration, Trigonometry, Conic Sections, Properties of Curves.
Part II. Mixed Mathematics — comprising Mechanics in general,
Statics, Dynamics, Hydrostatics, Hydrod)niamics, Pneumatics,
Mechanical Agents, Strength of Materials. With an Appendix of
copious Logarithmic and other Tables. By Olinthus Gregory,
LL.D., F.R. A.S. Enlarged by Henry Law, C.E. 4th Edition,
carefully revised and corrected by J. R. Young, formerly Profes-
sor of Mathematics, Belfast College; Author of ** A Course of
Mathematics," &c. With 13 Plates. Medium 8vo, i/. ij. cloth.

*' As a standard work on mathematics It has not been exoeUed." — Artixan.

** The enji^cer or architect will here find read]^ to his hand, rules for solving neariy
every mathematical difficulty that may arise in his practice. As a moderate acquaint-
ance with arithmedc, algebra, and elementary geometrjr is absolutdy necessary to the
proper understanding of the most useful portions d this book, the author very wisely
has devoted the first three chapters to those subjects, so that the most ignorant may be
enabled to master the whole of the book, without aid from any other. Tlie rules are in
all cases explained by means of examples, in which every step of the process is deariy
worked out" — Builder.

" One of the most serviceable books to the practical mechanics of the country. . .
The edition of 1847 was fortunately entrusted to the able, hands of Mr. Law, who
revised it thoroughly, re-wrote many chapters, and added several sections to those
which had been rendered imperfect by advanced knowledge. On examining the varioos
and many improvements which he introduced into the work, they se^numost like a
new structure on an old plan, or rather like the restoration oS an old ruin, not only to
its former substance, but to an extent which meets the lara;er requirements of modem

times In the edition just brought out, the wcMrk has again been revised by

Professor Young. He has modernised the notation throughout, introduced a few
paragraphs here and there, and corrected the numerous t^pc^fraphical errocs wbidi
nave escaped the^ eyes of the former Editor. The book is now as complete as it is

possible to make it We have carried our notice of this book to a greater

length than the space allowed us justified, but the experiments it contains are so
interesting, and the method of describing them so dear, that we may be excused for
overstepping our limit It is an instructive book for the student, and a Text-
book for him who having once mastered the subjects it treats of, needs occasionally to
refresh his memory upon them." — Building News.

The Metric System.

A SERIES OF METRIC TABLES, in which the British
Standard Measures and Weights are compared with those of the
Metric System at present in use on the Continent By C. H.
DOWLING, C. E. 8vo, loj. dd. strongly bound.

" Mr. Bowling's Tables, which are well put together, come just in time as a leady
reckoner for the conversion of one system into the other." — Athentnetn,

" Their accuracy has been certified by Professor Airy, the Astronomer Royal.'*—
Builder.

" Resolution 8. — ^That advantage will be derived from the recent publicatioa (d
Metric Tables, byC H. 'Dov\xagtC.^:*''Rep0rt0/S*ciumP,BritiJkA*t0eiaiiom,
Bath.

WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 23

I I II - ■ - —

InwoocTs Tables^ greatly enlarged and improved.

TABLES FOR THE PURCHASING of ESTATES, Freehold,
Copyhold, or Leasehold; Annuities, Advowsons, &c., and for the
Renewing of Leases held under Cathedral Churches, Colleges, or
other corporate bodies ; for Terms of Years certain, and for Lives ;
also for Valuing Reversionary Estates, Deferred Annuities, Next
Presentations, &c., together with Smart's Five Tables of Compound
Interest, and an Extension of the same to lower and Intermediate
Rates. By William Inwood, Architect. The i8th edition, with
considerable additions, and new and valuable Tables of Logarithms
for the more Difficult Computations of the Interest of Money, Dis-
count, Annuities, &c., by M. F^DOR Thoman, of the Societe
Credit Mobilier of Paris. i2mo, 8j. cloth.

** This edition {the 18M) differs in many important partictdars
from former ones. The changes consist^ first, in a more convenient
and systematic arrangement of the original Tables, and in the removed
of certain numerical errors which a very careful revision of the whole,
has enabled the present editor to discover ; and secondly, in the
extension of practiced utility conferred on the work by the introduction
of Tables now inserted for the first time. This new and important
matter is all so much actually added to Inwood's Tables ; nothing
has been abstrctcted from the original collection: so that those who have
been long in the habit of consulting Inwood for any special profes-
sional purpose will^ as heretofore, find the informcdion sought still in
its pages.

" Those interested In the purchase and sale of estateis, and in the adjustment of
compensation cases, as well as in transactions in annuities, life insurances, &c., will
find the present edition of eminent service." — Engineering,

Geometry for the Architect, Engineer^ &c.

PRACTICAL GEOMETRY, for the Architect. Engineer, and
Mechanic ; giving Rules for the Delineation and Application of
various Geometrical Lines, Figures and Curves. By E. W. Tarn,
M.A., Architect, Author of " The Science of Building," &c.
With Illustrations. Demy 8vo. [/« the press.

Compound Interest and Annuities.

THEORY of COMPOUND INTEREST and ANNUITIES ;
with Tables of Logarithms for the more Difficult Computations of
Interest, Discount, Annuities, &c., in all their Applications and
Uses for Mercantile and State Purposes. With an elaborate Intro-
duction. By FfeDOR Thoman, of the Soci^t^ Credit Mobilier,
Paris. i2mo, cloth, 5^.

** A very powerful work, and the Author has a very remarkable command of his
s\xh}^c\.**— Professor A. de Morgan.

** No banker, merchant, tradesman, or man of business, ought to be without Mr.
Thoman's truly 'handy-book.' " — Review.

** The author of this * handy-book ' deserves our thanks.'' — Insurance Gazette,,

** We recommend it to the notice of actuaries and accoutiXaxiW* — AtKen<n«m«

24 WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO.

SCIENCE AND ART.

The Military Sciences.

AIDE-M£M0IRE to the MILITARY SCIENCES. Framed
from Contributions of Officers and others connected with the dif-
ferent Ser\4ces. Originally edited by a Committee of the Corps of
Rmral Engineers. Second Edition, most carefully revised by an
Officer of the Corps, with many additions ; containing nearly 350
Engravings and many hundred Woodcuts. 3 vols, royal 8vo, extra
cloth boards, and lettered, price 4/. lor.

"A compendious encyclopaedia of military knowledge, to which we are greatly in-
debted." — Edinburgh Review.

** The most comprdiensive work of reference to the military and collateral sciences.
Among the list of contributors, some seventy-seven in number, will be found names oi
the highest distinction in the services. . . . The work claims and possesses the great
merit that by far the lareer portion of its subjects have been trea t ed originaUy by die
practical men who have been its contxibators/*'^ yohtnteerServicg GeuetU,

Field Fortification.

A TREATISE on FIELD FORTIFICATION, the ATTACK
of FORTRESSES, MILITARY, MINING, and RECON-
NOITRING. By Colonel I. S. Macaulay, late Professor of
Fortification in the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. Sixth
Edition, crown 8vo, cloth, with separate Atl^ of 12 Plates, sewed,
price I2J. complete.

Dye- Wares and Colours.

THE MANUAL of COLOURS and DYE-WARES: their

Properties, Applications, Valuation, Impurities, and Sophistications.

For the Use of Dyers, Printers, Dry Salteis, Brokers, &c. By J.

W. Slater. Post 8vo, cloth, price 7^. 6^. \Recently pmbtishaL

" Essentially a manual for practical men, ai)d precisely such a book as practical
men will appreciate." — Scientijic Review.

"A complete encyclopaedia of the materia tinctoria. The information given
respecting each article is full and precise, and the methods of determining the value
of articles such as these, so liable to sophistication, are given with clearness, and are
practical as well as valuable." — Chemist and Druggist,

Electricity.

A MANUAL of ELECTRICITY ; including Galvanism, Mag-
netism, Diamagnetism, Electro-Dynamics, Magno-Ellectricity, and
the Electric Telegraph. By Henry M. Noad, Ph.D., F.C.S.,
Lecturer on Chemistry at St. George's Hospital. Fourth B^ition,
entirely rewritten. Illustrated by 500 Woodcuts. 8vo, i/. 4J. doth.

" This publication fully bears out its title of ' Manual* It discusses in a satisfiictorv
manner electricity, frictional and voltaic, thermo-electricity, and electro-physidogy.
-—Athenetum.

"The commendations already bestowed in the paees of the Lancet on the former
editions of this work are more than ever merited by the i)resent. The accounts given
of electricity and galvanism are not only complete m a scientific sense, but, whitt is a
rarer thing, are popular and interesting." — Lancet,

WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 2$

jj_ m.^m M-M-M ■ ■ I - II - — -*~

Text-Book of Electricity.

THE STUDENT'S TEXT-BOOK OF ELECTRICITY: in-
cluding Magnetism, Voltaic Electricity, Electro- Magnetism, Dia-
magnetism, Magneto -Electricity, Thermo-Electricity, and Electric
Telegraphy. &ing a Condensed Resume of the Theory and Ap-

{>lication of Electrical Science, including its latest Practical Deve-
opments, particularly as relating to Aerial and Submarine Tele-
graphy. By Henry M. Noad, Ph.D., Lecturer on Chemistry at
St. George's Hospital. Post 8vo, 400 Illustrations, \2s, 6d. cloth.

" We can recommend Dr. Noad's book for clear style, great range of subject, a eood
index, and a plethora of woodcuts. Such collections as the present are indispensable."
—AtArfutum.

** A most elaborate compilation of the facts of electricity and magnetism, and of the
theories which have been advanced concerning them.*' — Popular Scietice Review,

** Clear, compendious, compact, well illustrated, and well printed, this is an excel-
lent manual." — Lancet. v

** We can strongly recommend the work, as an admirable text-book, to every student
—beginner or advanced— of electricity.**-— ^»^«^^rw«jf.

" The most complete manual on the subject of electricity to be met with.'* — Observer.

** Nothing of value has been pa.ssed over, and nothing given but what will lead to a
correct, ana even an exact, knowledge of the present state of electrical science.*'—-
Mechanic^ Magazine.

" We know of no book on electricity contsuning so much information on experi-
mental facts as this does, for the size of it, and no bo ok of any size that contains so
complete a range of facts.'* — English Mechanic.

Rudimentary Magnetism,

RUDIMENTARY MAGNETISM : being a concise exposition
of the general principles of Magnetical Science, and the purposes
to which it has been appHed. By Sir W. Snow Harris, F.R.S.
New and enlarged Edition, with considerable additions by Dr.
Noad, Ph. D. Numerous Woodcuts. i2mo. \In the press.

Chemical Analysis.

THE COMMERCIAL HANDBOOK of CHEMICAL ANA-
LYSIS ; or Practical Instructions for the determination of the In-
trinsic or Commercial Value of Substances used in Manufactures,
in Trades, and in the Arts. By A. Normandy, Author of ** Prac-
tical Introduction to Rose's Chemistry,'* and Editor of Rose's
"Treatise of Chemical Analysis." Illustrated with Woodcuts.
Second and cheaper Edition, post 8vo, 9J. cloth.

'* We recommend this book to the careful perusal of every one ; it may be truly
affirmed to be of universal interest, and we stronglv recommend it to our readers as a
j^ide alike indispensable to the housewife as to the pharmaceutical practitioner."—
Medical Times.

" The very best work on the subject the English press has yet produced.'*— 3/if-
chanici Magazine.

Practical Philosophy.

A SYNOPSIS of PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHY. By the Rev.
John Carr, M. A., late Fellow of Trin. Coll., Cambridge. Second
Edition. i8mo, 5^. cloth.

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Science and Art.

THE YEAR-BOOK of FACTS in SCIENCE and ART ; ex-
hibiting the most important Improvements and Discoveries of the
Past Year in Mechanics and the Useful Arts, Natural Philosophy,
Electricity, Chemistry, Zoology and Botany, Geology and Kune-
ralogy, Meteorology and Astronomy. By John Times, F.S.A.,
Author of "Curiosities of Science," "Things not Generally
Known," &c. With Steel Portrait and Vignette. Fcap. 5j. doth.

** This worky ptiblished annually^ records the proceedings of the
principal scientific societies^ and is indispensable to cUl who wish to
possess a faithful record of the latest novelties in science and the arts.

The back Volumes, from 1861 to 1S70, each containing a Steel
Portrait, and an extra Volume for 1862, with Photograph, may still
be had, price 5^. each.

" Persons who wish for a concise annual summary of important scientific events will
find their desire in the 'Year Book of Facts.' " — Atkenaum.

^ ** The standard work of its class. Mr. Timbs's ' Year Book * is always full of sQgges-
tive and interesting matter, and is an excellent risumi of the year's progress in the
sciences and the arts." — Builder.

"A correct exponent of scientific process .... a record of abiding interest If
anyone wishes to know what progress saence has made, or what has been done in any
branch of art during the past year, he has only to turn to Mr. Timbs's pages, and
is sure to obtain the required information." — Mechanic/ MagaztMe.

** An invaluable compendium of scientific progress for which the public are indebted
to the untiring energy of Mr. Tunbs." — Atlas.

** There is not a more useful or more interesting compilation than the 'Year Book of
Facts.' . . . The discrimination with which Mr. Timbs selects his facts, and the admi-
rable manner in which he condenses into a comparatively short space all the salient
features of the matters which he places on record, are deserving of great praise."—
^Railway Newts,

Science and Scripture,

SCIENCE ELUCIDATIVE OF SCRIPTURE, AND NOT
ANTAGONISTIC TO IT ; being a Series of Essays on— i.
Alleged Discrepancies ; 2. The Theory of the Geologists and
Figure of the Earth ; 3. The Mosaic Cosmogony ; 4. Miiades in
general — Views of Hume and Powell ; 5. The Miracle of Joshua —
Views of Dr. Colenso : The Supematurally Impossible ; 6. The
Age of the Fixed Stars — their Distances and Masses. By Professor
J. R. Young, Author of " A Course of Elementary Mathematics,"
&c. &c Fcap. 8vo, price 5j. cloth lettered.

" Professor Young's examination of the early verses of Genesis, in connectioa with
modem scientific hypotheses, is excellent." — English Churchman,

" Distin^ished by the true spirit of scientific inquiry, by great knowledge, by keen
logical abiUty, and by a style peculiarly clear, easy, and eneigetic." — Nonconfmmisl,

" No one can rise from its perusal without being impressed with a sense of the aiB-
gular weakness of modem scepticism." — Baptist Magazine.

"The author has displayed considerable learning and critical acumen in combatiiv
the objections alluded to The volume is one of considerable value, inas-
much as it contains much sotmd thought, and is calculated to assist the reader to dis*
criminate truth from error, at lea^ so far as a finite mind is able to separate them.
The work, therefore, must be considered to be a valuable contribution to (
theological literature."— -CiXy Press,

WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 27

Geology and Genesis Harmonised.

THE TWIN RECORDS of CREATION; or, Geology and
Genesis, their Perfect Harmony and Wonderful Concord. By
George W. Victor Le Vaux. With numerous Illustrations.
Fcap. 8vo, price 5^. cloth,

** We can recommend Mr. Le Vaux as an able and interesting guide .to a popular
appreciation of geological science.** — Spectator.^

*' The author combines an unboimded admiration of science with an unbounded
admiration of the Written Record. The two impulses are balanced to a nicety ; and
the consequence is^ that difficulties, which to minds less evenly poised, would be
serious, find immediate solutions of the happiest kinds." — London Review.

" A most instructive and readable book. We welcome this volume as aiding in a
most important discussion, and commend it to those interested in the subject." —
JEvan^lical Magazine.

** Vigorously written, reverent in spirit, stored with instructive geological fact9> and
designed to show that there is no discrraancy or inconsistency between the Word and
the works of die Creator. The future ot Nature, in connexion with the glorious destiny
of man, is vividly conceived." — WatchmoH.

" No real difficulty is shirked, and no sophistry is left unexposed." — T/te Rock.

Geology y Physical.

PHYSICAL GEOLOGY. (Partly based on Major-General
Portlock's Rudiments of Geology.) By Ralph Tate, A.L.S.,
F.G.S. Numerous Woodcuts. i2mo. \yust ready.

Geology, Historical.

HISTORICAL GEOLOGY. (Partly based on Major-General
Portlock*s Rudiments of Geology.) By Ralph Tate, A.L.S.,
F.G.S. Numerous Woodcuts, i2mo. {just ready.

Wood- Carving.

INSTRUCTIONS in WOOD-CARVING, for Amateurs; with
Hints on Design. By A Lady. In emblematic wrapper, hand-
somely printed, with Ten large Plates, price 2s, 6d.

" The handicraft of the wood-carver, so well as a book can impart it, may be learnt

from * A Lady's ' publication." — Aiheneeum.

** A real practical guide. It is very complete." — Literary Ckurckman,

** The directions given are plain and easily understood, and it forms a very good

introduction to the practical part of the carver's art." — English Mechanic.

Popular Work on Painting.

PAINTING POPULARLY EXPLAINED; with Historical
Sketches of the Progress of the Art. By Thomas John Gullick,
Painter, and John Timbs, F.S.A- Second Edition, revised and
enlarged. With Frontispiece and Vignette. In small 8vo, dr. cloth.

%* This Work has been adopted as a Prize-book in the Schools
of Art at South Kensington.

** A work that may be advanta|[eously consulted. Much may be learned, even by
those who fancy they do not require to be taught, from the careful perusal of this
unpretending but comprehensive treatise." — Art Journal.

** A valuable book, which supplies a Mrant. It contains a large amount of original
matter, agreeably conveyed, and will be found of value, as well by the young artist
seeking information as by the general reader. We give a cordial wdcome to the book,
and au^r for it an increasing reputation. '*-y5«/ZflSfr.

** This volume is one that we can heartily recqmmend to all who arc d»sxwA ^
understanding what they admire in a good painting." — Daily Nrws.

28 WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO.

Delamotte^s Works on Illumination & Alpfmbets.

A PRIMER OF THE ART OF ILLUMINATION ; for the
use of Beginners : with a Rudimentary Treatise on the Art, Prac-
tical Directions for its Exercise, and numerous Examples taken
from Illuminated MSS., printed in Gold and Colours. By F. Dela-
MOTTE. Small 4to, price 9^. Elegantly boimd, cloth antique.

"A handy book, beautifully illustrated ; the text of which is well written, and cal-
culated to be usefuL . . . Theexamplesof ancient MSS. recommended to the student,
which, with much good sense, the author chooses from collections accessible to all, are
selected with judgment and knowledge, as well as taste." — AtkeMoutn,

ORNAMENTAL ALPHABETS, ANCIENT and MEDIAEVAL;
from the Eighth Century, with Numerals ; including Gothic,
Church-Text, large and small, German, Italian, Arabesque, Initials
for Illumination, Monograms, Crosses, &c. &c, for the use of
Architectural and Engineering Draughtsmen, Missal Painters,
Masons, Decorative Painters, Lithographers, Engravers, Carvers,
&c. &c. &c. Collected and engraved by F. Delamott^ and
printed in Colours. Royal 8vo, oblong, price 41. cloth.

"A well-known engraver and draughtsman has enrolled in this useful book die
result of many years' study and research. For those who insert enamelled sentences
round gilded chalices, who blazon shop legends over shop-doors, who letter church
walls with pithy sentences from the Decalogue, this book wul be usefuL" — Athetumm.

EXAMPLES OF MODERN ALPHABETS, PLAIN and ORNA-
MENTAL ; including German, Old English, Saxon, Italic, Per-
spective, Greek, Hebrew, Court Hand, Engrossing, Tuscan,
Riband, Gothic, Rustic, and Arabesque ; with several Original
Designs, and an Analysis of the Roman and Old English Alpha-
bets, large and small, and Numerals, for the use of Draughtsmen,
Surveyors, Masons, Decorative Painters, Lithographers, Engravers,
Carvers, &c Collected and engraved by F. Delamotte, and
printed in Coloiurs. Royal 8vo, oblong, price 4x. cloth.

** To artists of all classes, but more especially to architects and engravers, tfiis very
handsome book will be invaluable. There is comprised in it every possible shape into
which the letters of the alphabet and numerals can be formed, and the talent yAndk
has been expended in the conception of the various plain and ornamental letters ^
wonderful. " — Standard.

MEDIAEVAL ALPHABETS AND INITIALS FOR ILLUMI-
NATORS. By F. Delamotte, Illuminator, Designer, and
Engraver on Wood. Containing 21 Plates, and Illuminated Htle,
printed in Gold and Colours. With an Introduction by J. WiLLlS
Brooks. Small 4to, 6s. cloth gilt.

" A volume in which the letters of the alphabet come forth glorified in g^ding and
all the colours of the prism interwoven and intertwined and intermingled, sometimes
with a sort of rainbow arabesque. A poem emblazoned in these characters would be
only comparable to one of those delicious love letters symbolized in a bunch of floweis
well selected and cleverly arranged."— >$■««.

THE EMBROIDERER'S BOOK OF DESIGN ; contaming Initials,
Emblems, Cyphers, Monograms, Ornamental Borders, Ecclesias-
tical Devices, Mediaeval and Modem Alphabets, and National
Emblems. Collected and engraved by F. Delamotte, and
printed in Colours. Oblong 10^2! S\o, as. 6</. in ornamental boards.

WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & .CO. 29

AGRICULTURE, &c.

Yotcatt and Burtis Complete Grazier.

THE COMPLETE GRAZIER, and FARMER'S and CATTLE-
BREEDER'S ASSISTANT. A Compendium of Husbandry.
By William Youatt, Esq., V.S. nth Edition, enlarged by
Robert Scott Burn, Author of "The Lessons of My Farm," &c.
One large 8vo volume, 784 pp. with 215 Illustrations, i/. \s, half-bd.

CONTENTS.

On the Diseases of Cafi/e.-^Dlscascs
Incident to Cattle. — Diseases of Calves.-^
Diseases of Horses. — Diseases of Sheep. —
Diseases of Lambs. — Diseases Incident to
Swine. — Breeding and Rearine of Do-
mestic Fowls, Pigeons, &c. — PaJmipedes,
or Web-footed kinds. — Diseases of Fowls.

On Farm Offices and Implements of
Husbandry. — TTie Farm-house, the Farm-
yard, and its Offices. — Construction of
Ponds. — Farm Cottages. — Farm Imple-
ments. — Steam Cultivation. — Sowing Ma-
chines, and Manure Distributors. — Steam
Engines, Thrashing Machines, Corn-
dressing Machines, Mills, Bruising Ma-
chines.

On the Culture and Management oj
Grass Land. — Size and Shape of Fields.
— Fences. — Pasture Land. — Meadow
Land. — Culture of Grass Land. — Hay-
making. — Stacking Hay. — Impediments
to the Scythe and the Eradication of
Weeds.— Paring and Burning. — Draining.
Irrigation. — ^Warping.

On the Cultivation and Application
of Grasses, Pulse, and Roots. — Natural
Grasses usually cultivated. — Artificial
Grasses or Green Crops. — Grain and
Pulse commonly cultivated for their
Seeds, for their Straw, or for Green
Forage. — ^Vegetables best calculated for
Animal Food. — Qualities and Compara-
tive Value of some Grasses and Roots as
Food for Cattle.

On Manures in General, and their
AMlication to Grass Land. — Vegetable
Manures. — Animal Maniu-es. — Fossil and
Mineral Manures.— Liquid or Fluid Ma-
nures. — Composts. — Preservation of Ma-
nures. — Application ofManures. — Flemish
System of Manuring. — Farm Accounts,
and Tables for Calculating Labour by the
Acre, Rood, &c., and by the Day, Week,
Month, &c. — Monthly Calendar of Work
to be done throughout ihe Year. — Obser-
vations on the Weather. — Indbx.

On the Breedings Rearing, Fattening,
and General Management ^Neat Cattle.
— Introductory View of the different Breeds
of Neat Cattle in Great Britain. — Com-
parative View of the different Breeds of
Neat Cattle. — General Observations on
Buyingand Stocking a Farm with Cattle.
—The Bull— The Cow.— Treatment and
Rearing of Calves. — Feedingof Calves for
Veal.— Steers and Draught Oxen.— Graz-
ing Cattle. — Summer Soiling Cattle. —
Winter Box and Stall-feeding Cattle. —
Artificial Food for Cattle. — ^Preparation
of Food.— Sale of Cattle.

On the Ecmtomy and Management of
the Dairy, — Milc^ Kine.— Pasture and
other Food best calculated for Cows, as
it regards their Milk. — Situation and
Buildings proper for a Dairy, and the

S roper Dairy Utensils. — Management of
lilk and Cream, and the Msucing and
Preservation of Butter. — Makineand Pre-
servation of Cheese. — Produce of a Dairy.
On the Breeding, Rearing, and Ma-
nagement of Farm-horses. — Introductory
and Comparative View of the different
Breeds of Farm-horses. — Breeding Horses,
Cart Stallions and Mares. — Rearing and
Training of Colts. — Age, Qualifications,
and Sale of Horses. — Maintenance and
Labour of Farm-horses. — Comparative
Merits of Draught Oxen and Horses. —
Asses and Mules.

On the Breeding, Rearing, and Fat-
tening of Sheep. — -Introductory and Com-
parative View of the different Breeds. —
Merino, or Spanish Sheep. — Breeding and
Management of Sheep. —Treatment and
Rearing of House-lambs, Feeding of Sheep,
Folding Sheep, Shearing of Sheep^ &c.

On the Breeding, Rearing, and Fat-
tening of Swine.— ^ntcodnctory and Com-
parative View of the different Breeds of
Swine. — Breeding and Rearing of Pigs. —
Feeding and Fattening of Swine. — Curing
Fork and Bacon.

** The standard, and text-book, with the farmer and grazier." — Farmer's Magazine.

" A valuable repertory of intelligence for all who make agriculture a pursuit, and
especially for those who aim at keeping pace with the improvements of the age." —
Bell's Messenger.

** A treatise which will remain a standard work on the subject 9& Vq'Q!^ *»& ^t>sq:^
agriculture endures." — Mark Lane Express,

50 WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO.

Scott Burns Introdiution to Farming.

THE LESSONS of MY FARM : a Book for Amateur Agricul-
tnriats, being an Introduaion to Farm Practice, in the Culture of
Crops, the Feeding of Cattle, Management of the Dairy; Ponltiy,
and Pigs, and in the Keeping of Farm-work Records. By Robert
Scott Burx, Editor of " The Year-Book of Agricaltuzal Facts,"
&C. With numeroas Illustrations. Fcp. 6r. doth.
" A most complete introductiaD to the vhole Tound of fanning pntcdoc." — John

BmIL

** There are many hints in it vhich even old &nners need not be ashamed to

accept." — Morning Herald.

Tables for Laftd Valuers.

THE LAND VALUER'S BEST ASSISTANT : being T^ks,

on a very much improved Plan, for Calculating the Value of

Estates. To which are added. Tables for reducing Scotch, Irish,

and Provincial Customary Acres to Statute Measure ; also. Tables

of Square Measure, and of the ^'arious Dimoisions of an Acre in

Perches and Yards, by which the Contents of any Plot of Ground

may be ascertained without the expense of a r^;ular Survey ; &c.

By R. Hudson, Civil Engineer. New Edition, with Additions and

Corrections, price 4r. strongly bound.

" This new edition includes tables for ascertaining die value of leases for any tenn

of years ; and for showing how to lay out plots of ground of certain acres in forms,

Sfiuare, round, &c., with valuable rules for ascertainii^ the pfx>bable wmth of standing

timber to any amount ; and is of incalculaUe value to the country gendonan and pro-

fessional man." — Farmer's Journal.

The Laws of Mines and Mining Companies.

A PRACTICAL TREATISE on the LAW RELATING to
MINES and MINING COMPANIES. By Whitton Arun-
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Text-Book for Architects ^ Engineers^ Surveyors^
Land Agents, Country Gentlemen^ &c.

A GENERAL TEXT-BOOK for ARCHITECTS, ENGI-
NEERS, SURVEYORS, SOLICITORS, AUCTIONEERS,
LAND AGENTS, and STEWARDS, in aU their several and
varied Professional Occupations ; and for the Assistance and
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with Examples of Villas and Country Houses. By Edward Ryde,
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Chapters on Agriculture and Landed Property, by Professor
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CONTENTS.

Arithmetic.

Plane and Scud Geometby.

Mensuration.

Trigonometry.

Conic Sections.

Land Measuring.

Land Surveying.

Levelling.

Plotting.

Computation op Areas.

Copying Maps.

Railway Surveying.

Colonial Surveying.

Hydraulics in connection

WITH Drainagb> Sewerage,

AND Water Supply.

Timber Measuring.

Artificers* Work.

Valuation of Estates.

Valuation of Tillage and Tenant
Right.

Valuation of Parishes.

Builders' Prices.

Dilapidations and Nuisances.

The Law relating to Appraisers and
Auctioneers.

Landlord and Tenant.

Tables of Natural Sines and Co-
sines ; FOR Reducing Links into
Feet, &c. &c.

Stamp Laws.

Examples of Villas, &c.

To which are added Fourteen Chapters
ON LANDED PROPERTY. By Professor Donaldson.

Chap. I. — Landlord and Tenant : their Position and Connections.

Chap. II. — Lease of Land, Conditions and Restrictions ; Choice of Tenant,

and Assignation of the Deed.
Chap. III. — Cultivation of Land, and Rotation of Crops.
Chap. IV.— Buildings necessary on Cultivated Lands : Dwelling-houses,

Farmeries, and Cottages for Labourers.
Chap. V. — Laying out Farms, Roads, Fences, and Gates.
Chap. VI. — Plantations, Yoimg and Old Timber.
Chap. VII. — Meadows and Embankments, Beds of Rivers, Water Courses^

and Flooded Grounds.
Chap. VIII. — Land Draining, Opened and Covoed : I^lan, Execution, and

Arrangement between Landlord and Tenant.
Chap. IX. — Minerals, Working, and Value.
Chap. X. — Expenses of an Estate.
Chap. XI. — ^Valuation of Landed Propertv ; of the Soil, of Houses, of Woods,

of Minerals, of Manorial Rights, of Royalties, and of Fee

Farm Rents.
Chap. XII. — Land Steward and Farm Bailiff : Qualifications and Dudes.
Chap. XIII. — Manor Bailiff, Woodreeve, Gardener, and Gamekeeper: thdr

Position and Duties.
Chap. XIV.— Fixed Days of Audit : Half-yearly Payments of Rents, Form of

Notices, Receipts, and •! Cam Books, General Map of Es-
tates, &C.

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